Outline and evaluate the multi-store model (12) | A01Atkinson and Shiffrin argued that there are three memory stores: 1. sensory store 2. short-term store 3. long-term storeAccording to the theory information from the environment is initially received by the sensory stores.
(There is a sensory store for each sense.) Some information in the sensory stores is attended to and processed further by the short-term store. In turn some information processed in the short-term store is transferred to the long-term store through rehearsal or verbally repeating it. The more something is rehearsed the stronger the memory trace in the long-term memory. The main emphasis of this model is on the structure of memory on rehearsal | A02Case studies support to the multi-store modelGlanzer and Cunitz found that when rehearsal is prevented, the recency effect disappears.There is evidence that encoding is different in short term and long-term memory. For example Baddeley There are huge differences in the duration of information in the short term and long term memory (Peterson & Peterson). (Bahrick et al.)oversimplified. (reductionist) | Outline and evaluate the working memory model (12) | Episodic buffer was added by Baddeley in 2000 | Active process: PET scans Amnesiac case studies Shallice & Warrington (1974) Baddeley (1986) found that patients with damage to their frontal lobe had problems concentrating suggesting damage to the central executive (researcher biased) | Outline and evaluate the cognitive interview (12)Outline and evaluate how a cognitive interview can be used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT). (12) | Findings concerning the unreliability of eye-witness accounts have led researchers to attempt to devise methods for improving retrieval. One of these methods is the cognitive interview (Fisher and Geiselman, 1992). used by the police to enhance retrieval of information from the witnesses memory.The cognitive interview involves a number of techniques:mentally reinstate the environmental and personal context of the crime report the incident from different perspective, Recounting the incident in a different narrative order. Geiselman & Fisher proposed that due to the recency effect, Witnesses are asked to report every detail, even if they think that detail is trivial. Geiselman et al. (1985)Aim: .Method: Results: Conclusion | Geiselman (1985) compared recall of some witnesses who had normal cop interview with those who had done a CI. Means: Normal Cop Interview: 29 correct statements Cognitive Interview: 41 correct statements. Supports the idea that the CI improves recall, perhaps by using cues and context to tease out more detail from witnessesHard to assess effectiveness as CI is composed of several techniques, and different police forces have tended to use different versions of it, making comparisons difficultCI can be time consuming, often requiring more time to do fully than police officers haveGeiselman and Fisher (1997) found that CI works best when used within a short time following a crime rather than a long time afterwards, Could limit their usefulness if it takes too long to find / interview witnesses | Outline and evaluate research into the effects of misleading information on eyewitness testimony. | Loftus (1975)The aim of this study was to discover the influence of misleading information on eye-witness testimony.150 participants Group 1: Group 2: A week later 17.3% of the group that were provided with the misleading question, gave the incorrect answer of ‘yes’. Only 2.7% of the other group said ‘yes’.- that misleading information can alter the mental representation a witness has of an event, consequentially reducing their accuracy. Eyewitness Testimony (Loftus and Palmer) (1975):AIMS:PROCEDURES:45 American students formed an opportunity sampleThis was a laboratory experiment with 5 conditions. FINDINGS:CONCLUSIONS:language can have a distorting effect on Eyewitness testimony, which can lead to inaccurate accounts of witnessed events. | The research lacks mundane realism, It also differs from real life in that the P’s knew that something interesting was going to be shown to them, and were paying full attention to it. - This research by Loftus and Palmer is important in showing that the memories of eyewitnesses can easily be distorted. - The P’s witnessed a brief film, which may have contained much less information than would be available when observing an incident or crime in real life. | Outline and evaluate studies that have investigated the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony | Loftus (1979) The role of anxiety in eyewitness testimonyAim: To find out whether anxiety in eyewitness testimony affected later identification.
Procedure:

Findings: Conclusion:
It was concluded that a weapon focuses the attention and narrows the focus of attention, resulting in accurate central details but less accurate peripheral details.Supporting evidence by Loftus & Burns (1982)Participants were allocated to one of two conditions.
1. Watched a violent short film where a boy was shot in the head
2. Watched a non-violent short film of a crime

Participants were less accurate in recall when they saw the violent short film than those who watched the non-violent movie.
This demonstrates support for Loftus (1797) as it shows that when people witness anxiety provoking situations they are less likely to recall accurately. | One weakness is that the majority of research into anxiety and eyewitness testimony is laboratory based.

In addition to this laboratory research is conducted in an artificial situation, this means that it may lack ecological validity.

Furthermore the participants may recognise the expectations of the research and may demonstrate demand characteristics. anxiety research raises ethical issues.
The participants in Loftus (1979) were deceived as they were led to believe it was a real situation, this it may have caused psychological harm . | Outline and evaluate research into how age can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).Children | children and the accuracy of eye witness testimony:Roberts and Lamb - they analysed 161 police interviews with children regarding allegations of abuse. In 68 / 161 of the interviews the interviewer misinterpreted “in private” as “in the privates” and in 2/3 of these cases this remained uncorrected by the children.Therefore, this research would suggest that people of a young age do not have accurate eye witness testimony.Davies - found that differences between child and adult interviews were overstated and that children can provide very valuable eye witness testimony as long as care is taken during the interviewing procedure. Therefore, this research would suggest that people of a young age do have accurate eye witness testimony. | Strength / Weakness - most of the research is lab based meaning it is replicable and scientific but is lacking in ecological validity.Research that is in the form of naturally occurring phenomena (Roberts and Lamb) has good ecological validity but is not scientific or replicable as variables were not highly controlled and because it is not artificial. Weakness - the results could be due to a number of factors such as: young people may be more used to memory tests or older adults have poorer health leading to memory impairment.Weakness - the research findings are inconclusive.Weakness - the factors given by researchers, such as the ones stated, are only assumptions with no scientific evidence. | Outline and evaluate research into how age can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).The elderly | the elderly and the accuracy of eye witness testimony:Cohen and Faulkner - they showed 70 year olds and 35 year olds a film of a kidnapping then presented them with misleading details before asking them to recall what happened in the film.They found that the 70 years olds were more likely to be mislead than the 35 years olds. Therefore, this research would suggest that people of an old age do not have accurate eye witness testimony.Coxon and Valentine - they asked children (aged 8 ), young adults (aged 17) and older adults (aged 70) questions containing misleading information after they had watched a video. They then asked a further 20 specific questions to assess whether they had accepted the misleading information or not.They found that the older adults were less suggestible and were the only age group not to show a statistically significant misinformation effect. Therefore, this research would suggest that people of an old age do have accurate eye witness testimony. | Strength / Weakness - most of the research is lab based meaning it is replicable and scientific but is lacking in ecological validity.Research that is in the form of naturally occurring phenomena (Roberts and Lamb) has good ecological validity but is not scientific or replicable as variables were not highly controlled and because it is not artificial. Weakness - the results could be due to a number of factors such as: young people may be more used to memory tests or older adults have poorer health leading to memory impairment.Weakness - the research findings are inconclusive.Weakness - the factors given by researchers, such as the ones stated, are only assumptions with no scientific evidence. | Describe and evaluate strategies for improving memory. techniques 1 | Acronyms E.g. ROYGBIV - To remember the colours of the of the rainbow Acrostics – E.g. My Very Easy Method Just Speeds Up Naming Planets : Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, PlutoRhymes – using the tune of twinkle twinkle little star to remember the alphabet chunking (miller)E.g. Phone numbers and post codes. | Hard to form an acronym that is meaningfulSupporting evidence for mnemonics – Bower et al conducted a lab experiment. He gave 112 words to learn. Recall was 2-3 times better if the words were presented in a organised hierarchy rather than in random order. Our memories naturally organise themselves, using mnemonics merely speeds up this process | Describe and evaluate strategies for improving memory. Techniques 2 | Method of loci – learner associates material to be learned with different locations in a house, along a street ect. Then the learner mentally retraces their steps to recall the items Key word method – used when associating pieces of information E.g. Learning a new language, the new word is broke into components with images created for each component that link to English meaning Mind maps – visual way of representing material, the idea being that you remember each part and remember what it represents. | * When using visual aid, once learnt the technique can be used regularly. * not everyone has the ability to visualise, so the techniques don't suit everybody. |