OBST 590 - Old Testament Introduction

Book Summary II

Ancient Near Eastern Thought and The Old Testament

By Walton

___________________

Submitted to Dr. Ashraf Basilious

27 February 2013

CONTENTS

iNTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I REVIEW 2

chapter ii review 4

CHAPTER III REVIEW 6

CHAPTER IV REVIEW 7

CHAPTER V REVIEW 9

CHAPTER VI REVIEW 11

CHAPTER VII REVIEW 13

CHAPTER VIII REVIEW 15

CHAPTER IX REVIEW 17

CHAPTER X REVIEW 18

CHAPTER XI REVIEW 20

CHAPTER XII REVIEW 22

CHAPTER XIII REVIEW 23

CHAPTER XIV REVIEW 24

CONCLUSION 26

Introduction
The “Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament”, by Walton covers many issues which an individual unless wanting to seek more than what is written in the bible would want to perform endless days of research and ability to see firsthand by reading Walton’s book. These areas covered in Walton’s book cover the time from when the Old Testament had begun to be written back in BC and later re-found along with other textual artifacts earth in the 18 and mid 19th century AD. The discoveries of both biblical, and other un-biblical artifacts is covered within Walton’s book to how and why some individuals who have a different form of religious beliefs. To how in the past the individual living during early Near Eastern thought processes had been in regards to God or in many cases when not Israeli or Christian involved gods which were based off an individual’s personal interpretation. Which then in many cases spawned a different form of religion, in many cases were based off an event which. The many different form of religious beliefs covered in stem from the mythological Near Eastern form of thought process. In addition, to the aspect of how such un-Christian aspects from the past being so different from Christian gave further need for the defense of Christianity and by use of apologetics. These steps needed in many case with the more modern outlook some individuals have come to a theory of Cosmic Geography which open many worldview thoughts of many earlier thoughts held by individuals in history held in Cannite, Babyloian, Egyptia, and others. Which lead to a process of thought to where the earth would be a form of tiers being held in the middle between Heaven and Hell. While later proven during explorations the world was not flat but round and the processes of thoughts within many societies had were left to find only one true form of belief being Christian, Israeli. Which had one God who was all knowing but whose plain was not obtainable nor have interaction with humans physically but was un-reachable until one’s life ended and he or her either ascended into heaven or found him or herself in eternal damnation for their sins which had never been asked to be forgiven.

Chapter I The chapter discusses the differences found within the period ranging from the Egyptians living off the Nile River in the BC to late 19th early 20th Century. The information covers the unearthing and exploration of the lands of Egypt in the 18th Century where multiple texts and forms of religious Near Eastern thoughts were first being explored showing the many different forms of religion and in some cases the closeness between all forms. These forms and findings of textual documentation showing the closeness between many religions including some closeness between early Israelite Hebrew, and Christian beliefs brought interest from all over the world. These interests involved the antiquities of some forms of apologetics use for defense of Christianity and pushed from the early 18th century to the early 19th century by the German Oreinal Society. The GOS held some lectures in discussion regarding impact of Assyriology by Franz Delitzsch comparison to the Bible, which lead to an ideological divide. The main split associated with the comparison brought forth by Delitzsch lead individuals to where some would eventually push Assyriology within apologetics as a means of defense, and others to bring forth further personal scientific thoughts[1]. These thought string from Delitzsch even caused some scholars to question whether the Old Testament should be even placed into the Bible and possibly removed from Christian religion and theology. However many Christian scholars already knowing Delitzsch was a individual who place of thought was like that of early Near Eastern religion looking for science for his answer. Because Delitzsch not having yet found salvation and leaving Delitzsch with thoughts supporting his anti-Christian interpretation already. The attitude by other scholars continued on into the 1990’s as more discoveries were found bringing upon a study called by W. W. Hallo, a “contextual approach” which was a discussion between the similarities of the Bible compared to ancient Near Eastern Mythological beliefs[2]. Eventually a development of a sound comparative form of mythological study was developed to were scholars could defend those words found within the Bible which had similarities of those words found in Near Eastern belief. This ability in defense for the Bible also allowed scholars to defend Near Eastern Belief as well. The outcome was through study by confessional scholars the form of comparative study allowed for an ability for an individual scholar or scholars to abuse context found in ancient writings. The abuse from misinterpretation by ones misunderstanding would cause more damage to the word of God found in the Old Testament. Still to this day, there are times when misinterpretation has been a cause as in the past decades has caused misinterpretations by ignoring the differences or similarities found between the bible and ancient Near Eastern beliefs. Therefore, through culture dimension of language and literature and individual especially a student of the Bible can gain knowledge from what is needed to understand in some countries the way of communication is through the individual’s culture. Within Walton’s book he gives a great example being how in the United States there is a cultural phrase called “daylight savings time”. Which to an individual not from the United States would not know what people were talking about unless he or she asked and it was properly explained. Cultural dimension of religion is one other area, which take in account of the concerns associated with comparable religion. In some cases, this form of study is done against the Israelite religion and biblical text concerns found within the bible. The individual using a comparative form of study approach is able to find areas of continuity and discontinuity. These understandings would cover those areas where an individual can understand the differences in the places, which prophets had gone to worship. In addition, the references like the ark of the covenants are conforming to the words given by God to not have or hold any forms of idolism.

Chapter II The subject of comparative studies, scholarships, and theology covers those areas, which poses a unique challenge scholars have and currently use in the scientific study focusing on text associated in historical documentation and literary criticism[3]. Historical traditions have been seen to provide additional foundation in understanding forms of religious practice. These forms of religion through study show they might have been developed by early-undeveloped societies who do not have a greater understanding of why events or storms of Mother Nature had taken place. Through theorizing off many forms of scientific findings there have come the later results of such theories either to have surpassed ones scientific theory in many cases is hard to believe were able to have been so precise in ancient times. These findings have then lead to conclusions as more literature surfaced through time on the Near East where scholars could understand about the growth within the traditions of Near Eastern time frame and the traditions of the people from the text material found. These findings revolutionized the critical theory ability to challenge former theories of other scholars. One scholar who actually is noted for making one of these first actions was Herman Gunkel, on literary criticism, and the association for Near Eastern interpretation with text from Babylonian oral and textual historical documentation. The key portion of information Gunkel and others associated with him wanted was more information associated with theories of Wellhausen theory of late dating Genesis. The result from these forms of study caused many scholars to goes against one another one argument cause this was what is called the second challenge. The second challenge is the association of literary criticism dealing with certain text found within the Bible and those forms of text stemming from Near Eastern ancient thought text and the similarities between the two. A third approach in comparative study was in the establishment to try and provide evidence to show some forms of culture developments had in fact possibly happened earlier in a timeframe then the later timeframe. If provable, the results would show through evidence the comprehension and knowledge and sophistication of ancients around in the Near East was great. Meanwhile around this time there was a resistance by critical scholars in using the form of comparative study by some critical scholars because the form of study had not truly take in account the current form of text within the Bible is based off. The reasoning is there is no timeframe from studying the text to account for when truly the textual information had been written giving no way for historical justification. While others have concluded, the information does not need historical justification because the text in itself is dependent on simplistic generalization. However to be able to state one can understand what a ancient author from Near Eastern timeframe has written is not able to be truly effective one reason is the cultural differences between the author and the individual performing the study. Another form of study polemical uses the understanding the scientific study of the Bible in many occasions does not take in account for confessional premises. Therefore this form of study approach places the Old Testament along with other forms of ancient Near Eastern literature in some cases without disputing what is known to natural belong. One example of such study to where polemical comparative study would be used given by Walton was Noah the Ark and the great flood[4].
Chapter III The study and differentiation, which comes between literature found from the ancient Near East and within the Bible are ones, which and individual can tell whether or not the text is fictional or not. The Babylonians had many mythical gods, which was important because their gods gave a form of representation on why the world was the way it was for the people of Babylonian. While the Sumerians took a belief the gods, which were followed because the Sumerian history stated, they were real gods. Egyptians as well based many of their gods worshiped of the account their history stating the gods were real while all had no true form of deity. While Israelites and the stories associated with Yahweh in their religion was close to those beliefs of other Near Eastern, but was based differently on a God who had any forms of physical interaction compared to other ancient beliefs[5]. Therefore, since those beliefs of other ancient religions were ones, which categorized psychical and mythical powers, and no form of conviction like Egypt or Assyria, and others had no understanding of the Israelites God’s expectations. Ancient Near Eastern documents have been found to go back as far as early 1600 BC were text gives insight on how a form of cultured people began and lived through a flood and building of a community along with their religious rituals and beliefs[6]. The many different forms of religious belief center greatly of causes of nature to be a form of god becoming angry to impede famines upon people. In addition, celebrate festivals in a false god or gods name out of respect one example the Syrian New Years Eve festival was one for renewal to the head of the pantheon, which the people would start to prepare one year in advance for the festival, which took place every seven years. These forms of festivals in Near Eastern times were normal in ancient Near Eastern times as well so was it normal for many of the non-Christian temples to have daily rituals performed by the priest of the religion to honor the gods, and brought forth those individuals who were said to be Oracles. These Oracles were people or could tell an individual what his or her dreams meant and in many cases, either protected someone like a king or used evil[7]. In some cases, these oracles would also be able to take a form of action to be able to meet the needs of the religious god or gods they worshipped. There have been more than 30 prophetic text found from the reigns of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal to where many of the prophets which were within the religion were women[8]. In addition, as more text is found during excavations in the areas of the ancient Near East more understanding are broaden to the lifestyle from artifacts and cultures to which the Near East religions may have been formed. However, currently the major form of textual information, which has been gathered, is linked to the texts from echelon rather the common people.

Chapter IV The god or gods mention in the text from the ancient Near East both Mythical and biblical show how many deities were said to have functioned among one another as overseers. The actions to how gods interacted with human beings. One interesting thought is in ancient Near East religion there is no word for religion in any of the ancient languages nor is there any contrast between two things which are notated to being opposed or known to be different within nature or supernatural. While there the understanding between spiritual and physical but only with little understanding to human beings. This would make it almost impossible for a discussion between ancients to happen in reference to the thought of divine intervention. Because the ancient Near East view of thought to religion was understood to be in relation to their deity that was associated to the cultures worldview being interwoven with the cosmos. The ability to have an open discussion on the faith of God and his divinity would have been something of a shock to those individuals which lived in ancient Near East mainly because their belief of religion was based off what their religion had thought. The ancient Near East society of people based theirs understanding behind their god or gods from what experience they have lived or laws had been written by others who decided what was a deity for a god or gods to have towards him or her. The Egyptians thought of gods beginning from the use of fluid which had been completed through the transfer of fluid by sinful actions of their gods either”spitting, sneezing, sweating, or by masturbating[9].” The ancient world had a different prospective in looking at many cultures gods many of the cultures made their gods from one singular independent existence. The outlook of the ancients and their personal perspective towards the comic dimension and their divine god or gods followed the forms of nature found within the world like water, earth, air, and etc., but was also placed on a god or gods within space like the moon, or sun. The Mesopotamia culture and people had similar beliefs as those individuals in Egypt. The thought of a god or gods in Mesopotamian was the god or a mother of gods called “Nammu” who had given life to all the other gods, which were worshipped, created gods[10]. Through a comparative ability between the gods of the Near East being the Ontology and the genealogy of the group or system of god found in Israel to the portrayal Yahweh and the similarities and differences associated with the theology in Israel. The importance about Israel and the religion associated with Yahweh unlike other Near East religions has no origin, which brought God into existence. While other Near East religions have gods and names associated with their mythical spectrum of roles within their religions portfolio and sphere associated in their cosmic thought process and cultural competencies. While the comparative exploration with the Israel religions name Yahweh being the name of the deity associated with God’s identity. One example given by Walton would be Moses, and his interaction when he was at the burning bush speaking the Lord God, because this event portrays a single defining moment, were Moses asks God what, should he call him and receives the answer Yahweh[11]. The differences involved between Israel and other in ancient Near East is the other cultures were polytheistic and can be seen for such because these religions can be traced back to cosmogonies and the ancient gods were group decisions.
Chapter V The temples and rituals, which were associated with the worship of ancient residencies followed many cultic rituals in association with the understanding of the Near East beliefs in the cosmos. These beliefs were held in place because the religious belief held the temples as a location on earth to were to who worshiped their gods could go and have a portal to ask or pray to his or her gods. The other reason behind the building of temples to seek one’s god or gods was for rest for the deity to give relief from chaos in the gods estate on earth. The uses of idols were used by the ancients to give the deity of their religion an ability to transfer from the realm at which the gods where compared to the plain on Earth. However, the gods allowed the individuals of the ancient world the ability to make such idols, which would show a true reflection of what the gods look like because the gods would control the hands of the human who was sculpting the idol to true reflection of the god. In the ancient Near East times there were also prophets which reprimanded for the images of foreign nations which would have been manufactured and placed around and how arrogant the Babylonlains were to have made such an attempt to place a figure in relevance of a god. Egyptians had a similar method of idolizing his or her gods but there was a ritual performed by the royalty of Egypt to the belief the gods would enter into an image and be available for communication. These cultic beliefs and action would then allow the Egyptian royalty an ability to have the images and statues of their gods filled with their god’s presence. One scholar by the name of V. Hurowitz had perform and analysis of such forms of worship and found the need for some form of sacred place for worship of a god or gods were thought-out all periods of ideology in ancient times[12]. The comparison between ancient cosmos and the temple of Israel is different while similar as given example from the bible “ thus saith the Lord. , the heaven in my throne, and the earth is my footstool: where is the house that ye build unto me? and where is my place of rest?[13]” Therefore, some forms of religious belief if not shared between Israel and ancient Near East then the forms of religion had similarity with one another in the fact each had built a place for rest for their God. Another similarity shared between the two faiths of religion was the sacred place in relation to the blood rights close to the Bible who Israel and Near East cultures believed in the need to have a clean and cleansed space from impurity. The offerings of sacrifices by the ancients were generally meat to their gods while a couple cultures like Egypt would normally have an offering other than meat offered to the gods.
Chapter VI In the Near East, cultures there was also a form of concerns associated which were considered a state religion. These states of religion would cover information covered within the temple or palaces because the common individual during the ancient times would not have much to do with religion. However for when there was a festival celebrating the cultures god or gods, and the religion practice would have been primary practiced at a popular level and been called a “family event[14]. “ The evidence associated with this family event has been proven by findings from archaeological finds of cultic objects, which had been found within private homes. The state religion would be as it sounds a form of religion to the culture or society in which the gods had been placed by importance of the people within the land of a kingdom. Those servants, which resided within the home were mainly not allowed to be part of any daily religious worship, but expected to keep the lands within ones property and land kept up. While the practice of religion was at the households, the slave tended the fields while the family member’s responsibility was to meet the needs of their gods. Each domain in the ancient Near East timeframe were taken care of by the family members taken in act on the cultic rituals, and cultic activities. The king’s of each realm along with the priests were obligated in perform their duty of ensuring the gods were properly presented to the public by use of an image. These images would act as a mark of deity for the god or gods presence and was a center location for any ceremony in which the people would find divine presence. The worship of gods would take place after the gods were washed and presented with offering while playing music for the gods pleasure. Therefore, worship was performed while meeting the needs of caring for the gods and was believed to ensure the continued presence of the deity. The ability of knowing how much offering and care was needed was something which had believed to have been learn from experimentation mainly ensuring the god or gods were given the treatment of a king. However when an oracle would comment a god was becoming displeased with the treatment being received the people would make changes to try and identify what needed to be cared out in order to once again find the god or gods in good standing. Some of these changes could be from seeing if the god or gods wanted a new high priest or high priestess, possible the god or gods wanted a newer temple built to show they were properly being placed as a god or gods should. In some cases, the question even came forth on whether or not the god or gods might want the king of one realm to go to war against another realm possibly encroaching their realm[15]. Therefore, no one answer could be given behind why they believed the god or gods were unhappy, but only through ethical behavior of the god or gods people could an answer be found. The other thought, which would come to mind, would be is the god or gods angered by some action, which the people might, had caused the anger to come to term. This would then lead the ancients to remodel their temple or work to finding a resolution with one neighboring realm. The ancients even went so far as to have their king step down for a period of time while placing a replacement individual and giving him a wife so they could take the place of the king and queen as well the hardships which the people felt the god or gods would want. Then later once his and her time filling was completed, they would be put to death to end the hardship, which had originally caused the god or gods to become angry[16]. These actions however were greatly different from those actions of the Israelites when Yahweh was angered the Israelites knew they could not hide behind an imposter but rather answer for their sins which they had committed. For the offered knew God already knew who had done the crime before it had been committed and God would be the one to pass punishment (GENE 3.8)[17].
Chapter VII The exploration involving the cosmic geography structure explaining how such structure was perceived during the ancient Near East timeframe is one of great importance. The use of cosmic geography allows an individual the ability to look into how many individuals perceived the world around them within the culture he or she had lived. The example by Walton and how in current times we as individuals look at our personal cosmic world one being spherical and containing water and land mass laying in a solar system surrounded around planets circling one another[18]. The setting of our current cosmic condition brings interest and opens the set to start to see how individuals looked at their world in ancient Near East timeframe. The individuals in ancient Near East timeframe looked at the earth as a surface of ground, which had the heavens where the gods lived and below the earth were their representation of evil the netherworld was located. The belief of such a set up placed the world setting on tiers in the middle of both the gods above and the netherworld below. The sky during the day would be something, which would come above the earth and set at the out edge of the earth were the cosmic sea would stop during the night and move into the netherworld. The moon at night would come from beneath the earth at the edges of where the outer edge of the cosmic sea was located and the stars would be looked at something, which the gods had engraved into the sky. When looked at the ancients form of thought nothing makes since but when taking the time to look at the timeframe and amount of the world which had been explored it is easy to see how people who didn’t know too much about the world would have such misinterpretations. The belief of such a cosmic geography was import for the ancient Near East religion because the theory involving how the earth was setting allowed individuals to have a greater belief in their theorized gods. The Mesopotamians for example used the theorized belief of the cosmic geography in association with how their gods were connect to earth. The ancients who worshipped their gods were greatly entangled to the belief the gods were connected through cables going from the heavens to the earth or the idea the sky was supporting the heavens above. Egyptians as well took great time in their thought of the same cosmic geography showing how their gods were high above those who worshiped them. These forms of belief associated with the cosmic geography sat well with the ancients because the belief back then was if there was a connection of some sort with function then a belief was easier to believe in the ancients culture and ontology. The interesting part though is during the ancient times if one were to look at Israel’s Yahweh and read the Old Testament there is no such mention of a cosmic geography. The ancients theory of the cosmic geography also brought forth great superstition because since the earth was thought flat an individual was believed to gain access to the netherworld once he or she died through the location he or she was buried. Therefore a grave site of someone buried had to also be properly covered to keep from allowing anything from the underworld access to the plain on earth[19].

Chapter VIII The understanding of the ancient Near East thought on cosmology and cosmogony is the belief to were one god has decided to make other gods through cosmic phenomena or through order of elements found within the cosmos. The ability of gods to have the power to make other gods is relation to the creation ontology. Therefore, in the ancient Near East theory of beliefs the gods were brought into existence through separation of a function which took place and brought forth a god needing to be named. These forms of thought associated with a god beginning of existence is based off “function-orientated” ontology and when something came forth from physical then the way of creation would be “ substance-orientated”[20]. The Egyptians used these forms of thinking to develop gods, which allowed for a system of divine beings, which gave those who worship the gods of Egypt in belief a place to live filled with order and continuity. The main concern for many ancients were not of physical, but of the hierarchical oppositions, which laid beyond the physical, being the metaphysical reality. One example given by Walton is the Egyptian belief covering the god “Nut’s” to where she could not be effected by any human because she was set a higher realm higher than a human cosmos because Nut was a god and her physical structure was not the same as those humans who worshipped her. While in comparison to Hebrew belief Yahweh close to the same belief as those gods of the ancients because he is the creator of all and he however is different because he shares no physical boundaries with humankind because he is God, and he created all from nothing. The concept of creating everything from nothing is something many scholars to date have questioned if those ancients had any similar form of thought in relation to making something from nothing. The ancient’s belief and outlook on creation out of nothing was closer to a creation of something from something already existing for example the Egyptians people believed each day the sun came up from the underworld the creation of everything started all over again[21]. However non of the ancient belief of pre-creation is based off an abstraction or personal condition in the most part a couple beliefs which may have a comparison similar could be the Nammu, Sumer, Nun in Egypt and Measopotamia personal beliefs associated with myths which have conflict of jeopardy. The understanding of precosmic condition, and order and was focused on the world of the gods. The belief in the ancient times was the gods also live within a society with a hierarchical structure much like a kingdom minus any servants just other royals below them and these gods carried out with actions over those who worshiped them. The understanding of how the gods were named, the functions performed, the separation, and the giving roles between gods in ancient times was based on the concept the gods were specialized in certain areas of control i.e. the Egypt god “NUN” who had control over the primeval waters. While the Yahweh the God over the Hebrews was very different because their God established a reality of continuous sequence, where elements are not perceptibly different from one another but are quite distinct[22].

Chapter IX The past within the ancient, Near East was a cognitive environment, which can be divided into two chapters the first section of the chapter dealing with the origins of the human race and the other dealing with the textual writing and history of the ancient society[23]. The history associated with the ancient history covers the Sumerian, Akkian, Egyptian, Israeli, and a few other and the religious beliefs of them all. However before the ancient Near East there is no true original pair which became a known or mentioned to have been descended or have originated. The uses of clay, stone and other mineral sources to build a community for individuals to grow in population is mention for these early stages of humanity. The ancients’ mention of their gods having a mother god, which spawned off all the other gods, is mentioned throughout all the ancient history except for the Israel, which bases faith and respect to one almighty God Yahweh. In all the form of religion, there is no mention of physical loss from a god like that of bleeding or having hurt or loss of a body appendage. The deity however is something both the ancients do mention and show signs of characterization of sentient for humans. The beliefs of both the ancients there is also the similarity where both the Israeli and ancient Near East religions reference either clay or dust as the use to create humankind. A scholar by the name Kilmer stated the idea from where many ancient cultures obtain the conception clay was used to form a human is because within the placenta from when a woman gives birth to a child can be found the afterbirth which has some biological material resembling clay[24]. While the use of dust in context of mankind’s existence the similarity to the earth is not of something being built but could be used in acknowledgement of death of an individual. While both have and can be construed to an individual thought towards the beginning of life and the end in aspect to their composition in connection to creation which reoccurs’. The overview in association of the differences of polygensim and monogenism is set alone to each outlook or perspective of a primitive mental image of how those individuals in the ancient times thought and looked at life in their collective unconscious. The archetypal humanity in both Israel and the ancient Near East when explored comparatively show the acceptance by the Israel’s in believing he or she was created out of dust had no second thought. Because when as humans are what is made from what comes from the ground and is returned to the ground i.e. GENE 3.20 “ it wasn’t thou take: for dust thou art and unto dust shalt thou return.” While the ancient belief was anthropology of Adam and Eve were in relation to archetypal the elements of inherent connectivity to the ground and are mortal and but being interconnected to the cosmos.

Chapter X The past of the Near East is a group of different forms of religion along with how many Israelites persevered through the hard times of many different religions trying to be push around but were able to keep true to the faith of our Lord God. The understanding of how certain significant roles play in the determining of history and what was the determining role in making the event to cause an individual to make the event history. Some individuals had taken the answers which they had encountered and felt of great importance involved in his or her life centered around their religion and through the study of historiography an understanding of cultures of the past. The study of Mesopotamian’s by scholar M. Van has stated their texts beaks up into two larger categories these being the commemorative and chronographic which covered the areas of buildings and set up of places[25]. The Mesopotamians mainly focused on their king and his accomplishments including the treatments of those past kings in order and the dynastic prophecy along with the Weidner chronicle. While the Sumerian textual history covers a majority of the cultures historical text on the cultures legends i.e. Sugan, or Naram-Sin. The Egyptians focused much of their cultures text on Hittite, or Syro-Palestinian sources. The understanding of the history associated of ancient Near East requires an individual to understand he or she needs to look at the history as a cognitive environment. The guidelines for the understanding of the history can be broken into 4 accounts to help better understand the history which would break down into the first the deity’s role being a explanation based from philosophies. These philosophies would be Descartes, Spinoza, Hume, Voltaire, and Hegel which had a significant shift resulting for a precondition of relationship which might not allow for self-revelation towards truly who is in power. Therefore, the result would be a worldview of ancient historians not denying anything associated with natural cause and effect, and making the recorded history from the ancients not able to be validated. The second account in understanding would be the way at which ancients thought about time because the ancient focused greatly on the part of their ancestors while not focusing on the future and making the time within the history of the ancients to be arranged. In addition, the ancients sometimes extending along a passage of time when recording history focusing on a king in some case listing an opinion instead of always recording factual events. The third method associated with understanding the history would be how historiography could signify an author’s common belief on telling how something in the past had taken place and when read by a reader would have to be put into a perspective by a reader to determine whether the section of historical accent events are true or false. The fourth and final understanding which would be needed by a reader would take the reader to take in account what would of possibly been a motivation for the author who had been recording an event in history have been and what the authors values would have been to determine the validity associated with the textual writing.
Chapter XI The understanding associated with how an individual would ascertain their thought in ancient times relating to their past which they had understood and the present condition which they had been living is best understood by what the religious thought was by belief. The religion of the ancient culture being reviewed would greatly affect how the history of each individual ancient Near East history would be written, because religion dominated influenced each cultural. The ancient had no separation between their beliefs associated with secular or sacred which made the ancient thought of both become blended and the ancients thought to be determined off natural and everyday thought or aspects of life, which the individual was living. Walton discusses how in previous chapters within his book “ancient Near Easter thought and the Old Testament “ the methods of trying to understand those ways which the ancients had thought were based off of onotology, cosmology, theology, anthropology, and historiosophy. Which would invole a reader to understand it takes the reader to look at the ancient history as an individual’s theory of knowledge through their interpretation of methods of validity, and this process of thought would be what justified the ancients way of belief[26]. Some of the most supportive ways of thinking by the ancients which show this to be true are the Neo-Assyrain, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal periods where prophets played active roles in cultivating their messages as advisors i.e. prophets of Baal, and Asherah. The roles of prophecies by the ancients were not meant to reveal the nature of a deity but in many case covered areas of concern with one cultures military campaigns cultic activities, and politics while indentifying the prophets as servants to the ancients’ kings and people. In some cases, dreams would be believed to have come from a divine realm and called incubation dreams and royalty would often seek a prophet or oracle to give them insight of what such dream the royal was having meant. The forms of reading dreams were accompanied by literature in the Egyptain, and Mesopotamia cultures to be used as resources by those interpreters who were said to identify the content of a dream. In Babylonian history there is an account of neglectful behavior which states there was a form of cultural neglect performed were it was said their god would take away the land and a plague. One of the closets prophecies which had been given close to this reflection is how the Israelites has prophecies against the foreign nations which are intended to serve and support hope for the recipient. In the ancient timeframe the deductive divination and communicated through the events of the phenomena which could be observed[27]. The divination and epistemology within the Near East dealt with the worthwhile and mechanisms the ancients had believed they knew their deity and what the ancients had considered was worthwhile and needed to understand divination. While there was a great difference in the in divinity’s association with the divine and literary collections of omens the association of a warning as well those omens which extending the meaning and expanded the potential possibly to re-use.

Chapter XII The ability of how the ancients handle encounters within their present times were based primarily off the order their cities were based off a social context and the ancients believed the cosmos could not exist without the cities having stability. These areas associated with the ancient Near Eastern economic and technological, ecological, military, Political, and as Oswalt notates most importantly the ancients religious aspects to the development of urbanization. The thought of importance behind the need for cites to be in great order took great precedence in the Egyptian and Mesopotamia belief because their belief was the cities were built prior to the existence of humans because the belief was the gods existed before humankind[28]. Therefore, the cities within the ancient Near East culture played hand in hand with the livelihood of these cultures no matter the size the city in which the individuals lived. These beliefs within the ancient Near East culture were the most important and relationship between the deities and the people played hand and hand with one another. Through comparative exploration against Israel however was greatly different because the Israelis’ had only one temple and authorized location for individuals to gather and worship Yahweh, because the God made Jerusalem his home. The Israelis’ in no way had the thought Yahweh had any association with a form of cosmos of a person within Jerusalem. The ancient Near East belief of origins were based primarily off mythological description based off more than one belief and the gods built the cities for the humans, but those individuals who were appointed their king because their gods had become found over the human inhabitants of their cities. The concern and action, which the kings of the ancient Near East had associated with the divine world was there was a great understanding which needed to be known in order to learn what their gods wanted out of them to remain happy. The ancients also had the concept the gods when in favor would hold close to the kings who worshipped them while those kings who were not in favor of the gods would not be victorious in battle and fate of life would be dependent upon what the gods wanted. Therefore the kings within the Near East were put in charge of maintaining the order within the realm they were over to keep the realm in order as the gods wanted so there would be no negative effect to the cosmos which they lived. Israelite kingship however was different than the rest of the Near East because first there was only one God “Yahweh” and the king over the Hebrews was there to ensure God’s commandments were held, and those who violated God’s laws were punished.

Chapter XIII The method those individuals in the ancient Near East had toward s encountering the present was to have those individuals who had wisdom and which were law abiding citizen to assist in maintaining the structures within their societies. Through the textual literature, which has been made available through archaeological digs give, the understanding somewhat of what a society was like concerning legal, and instructional literature? The ancient historical found collections give a comprehensive and perspective representing the anthologies. One example could be how Bottero had demonstrated there isn’t a comprehensive area mainly focused or which seemed to be greatly worried about[29]. However, those individuals within the Near East and a fear of the supernatural. However wisdom is one, key context, which many ancient Near Eastern religions bring attention to when discussing, matters. The Near East people did have a section of literature music for general use and a epilogue of more explicit music to be used for royal inscriptions. The ancient Near Eastern religions also discuss those other actions such as medical treatments along with the individual’s thoughts on their omens, and legal actions, which had taken place. The use of scientific judgment was used was used in conformism for treatises within a group and was developed by theoretically or hypothetically instead of empirically[30]. Another observation which was made through the study of the ancient era was the course of action which was used to restore and resolve an issue and bring the situations back to an equilibrium were crimes by individuals would be punished those wrongs committed needed to be righten. These social orders and rules within the ancient times would be conducted by the royal, which sat at the hierarchy below the gods. The ancient were also said to have followed a ontological legal form of logic compared to how legal justice systems are handled compared to current times. These thoughts of logic would then be the king of a realm would be the key sponsor involved with the collection of charges against an individual and be responsible for the decision towards the insight of what would be a fare punishment for the criminal. The courts, which a criminal was to be judge by the king, were based off the society’s rules, and laws, which set principle, based off wisdom as the key to maintain the order within the society.
Chapter XIV The ancient Near Eastern thought on earth for what would happen after an individual would die was centered on a belief an individual’s exploits of those building projects they had been involved. The belief was their time of death would be tied into their ability of successfully having developed and designed a monument, which would endure natures force through time. Therefore, the success of completing such a building would be something tying into their happiness they would see and experience after death. The other importance, which many Near Eastern men had, was the need to have a son left behind after they had died to continue with their legacy. In the ancient times, famine was one great tragedy, which affected the ancients and resulted in many of the ancients pondering on the thought of how great it was going to be when they did die and go into the afterlife. While the concept within Israel was the expectation of a future of something new and which had never existed which based their culture belief off the hope and faith of ascending into heaven with our Lord God deriving from the information written within the covenant. One example which gives added thought associated from the Old Teatment is from Psalm 6:5 “ but most don’t address the ultimate fate of the soul” which would then direct an individual to the New Testament which in 1 Corinthians 15:35-38 “ but some man will say, how are the dead raised up? And with what body they come? Thou fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die:, and that which thou sowest thou sowest not that body that shall be , but bare grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other grain: but God giveth it a body as it hath pleased him, an to every seed his own body.[31]” The Bible gives the answer for where we all go who are saved and for where those who are unsaved will be sent until the time Jesus come again to judge the living and the dead. The pyramid text associated with the Egyptians is broken down into spells which the Egyptians believed could be obtained by the dead so he could make his way to the afterlife from their tomb deep within the pyramid. In addition the Egyptians also believe in a book of the dead which was supposed to have the ability to assist those who had died into their form of afterlife bypassing the cultures serpents which would be waiting to stop them before they could reach happiness. Another book which had been written about the netherworld was the book of the Netherworld which was believed to entail the nightly journey an Egyptian would face once he had passed away and was in the afterlife[32]. The burial service for an Egyptian would consist of the removal of organs, and brains belonging to the deceased to be into jars along with the dead in their tomb within the pyramid to assist with their travel to the afterlife. While the Mesopotamia people believed in mythological text at death, it was the introduction to mortality. Therefore, the ancient Near Eastern cultures believed once an individual died they would all end up somewhere to start into a new journey or form of existence.
Conclusion

The understanding of the ancient Near East is one which not only will help a individual understand the different religions which were around in the times of the Old Testament, but also understand those hardships which many Christians faced to have to overcome. Those individuals which were Christian already or of different religions and later found God had great obstacles for living his or her life in the way God wanted him or her to live. Like in today’s time currently the high amount of wordily views were around in the past if not worse in today’s times. The key issue which an individual can gain from the study of ancient times is those religions which were around at the time of the Old Testament are either still present or are present in other forms of religion found in today’s different religions Christians encounter daily. By reading, an learning of the ancient Near East religions a Christian can strengthen his or her bond with God. In addition, take the knowledge of what false religions where around in the past a use such knowledge to possibly show other individuals were a religion he or her is following will not bring them to the salvation of Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, how only through accepting one true and almighty will he or her find true understanding of what a true love and relationship with an almighty God by seeing how much God does and has shown is love i.e. God bringing his only begotten son to come walk the earth and die for all the sins of humankind to be forgiven.
WORKS CITED

. The Holy Bible (KJV). International Bible Seminary, 2011.

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32 Walton, John H.. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament. P.o. Box 6287, GRAND RAPIDS, I 49516-6287: Baker Academic, 2006.

13, 17, 31The Holy Bible (KJV). International Bible Seminary, 2011.

5Oswalt, John N. The Bible Among The Myths. Grand Rapids, MICHIGAN 49530: Zondervan,, 2009. ePub Edition August 2009 ISBN: 978-0-310-32242-9.

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[1] Pg. 16

[2]Pg. 17

[3] Pg. 29

[4]Pg. 33

[5] Loc. 696

[6] Pg. 44

[7]Pg. 59

[8]Pg. 78

[9] Pg. 87

[10]Pg. 89

[11] Pg. 92

[12] Pg. 118

[13] Loc. 34220

[14] Pg. 135

[15]Pg. 137

[16] Pg. 138

[17] Loc. 1975

[18] Pg. 165

[19] Pg. 178

[20]Pg. 179

[21] Pg. 184

[22]Pg. 190

[23]Pg. 203

[24] Pg. 206

[25] Pg. 219

[26] Pg. 239

[27] Pg. 249

[28] Pg. 275

[29] Pg.289

[30] 289

[31] Loc. 51084

[32] Pg. 315