Term paper
EN1320
Dr. Baughman
Jay C. Montgomery
August 13, 2015

The Evolution of Medicine
By
Jay C. Montgomery

The evolution of medicine was a contributing factor to important advances in our own modern day medicines and technologies. While there are many civilizations to choose from, some of the best contributions came from the Egyptian, Chinese, Greek, Roman, Muslim, Indian, and Japanese cultures. In order to understand what these civilizations did to transform the medical world, it is a necessity to first recognize and appreciate what they were able to accomplish with the little resources available at the time. That being said, even though these societies had little to work with, they were still capable of amazing achievements.
The first civilization being considered is the Egyptian civilization because it is one of the oldest and most well-known for their proficiency in various fields, including medicine. The Egyptians possessed a large amount of knowledge of healing with herbs as well as repairing physical injuries in order to tend to the workers responsible for building the great monuments that we still see today in Egypt (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). The Egyptians were very skilled at performing eye surgery, since irritation of the eyes was common in a desert society. Most of the archeological evidence we have today is thanks to the well preserved mummy corpses. We know that healed skeletons were a good indication that prove the Egyptians were capable of major repairs to broken bones. Doctors practiced amputation and sometimes even applied prosthetics while using antiseptics to counter infections from amputation (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine).
The Egyptians were very knowledgeable of herbs and successful remedies. They used honey to treat wounds and burns. Today, the British military is increasingly using it to treat burns. Willow was used to treat toothaches; including today willow bark is often the basis of modern day aspirin. The Egyptians were also capable of some advanced dentistry. They could extract as well as make false teeth. They used mint to treat stomachaches, and it is still used today such as with most teas. Pomegranates were used to treat parasitic worms, and modern scientists have found that the high tannin content of this fruit actually does paralyze worms (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). Egyptians were able to stitch wounds, and placed raw meat on wounds to aid the healing process and stimulate blood production. Egyptian doctors also used moldy bread as an antibiotic, which was thousands of years before Alexander Flemming discovered penicillin from a moldy Petri dish (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). They were able to gain knowledge of physiology from their own autopsies of mummified bodies. Ancient Egyptian physicians were almost unrivaled in their practices before the Islamic Golden Age.
Before that, however, it is important to talk about the Chinese civilization which is another one of the oldest civilizations whose many modern-day medicinal practices are still heavily reliant on traditions put in place thousands of years ago. The first written documentation on traditional Chinese medicine is the Hung-Di Nei-Jing or Yellow Emperor’s Cannon of Internal Medicine; as a result, the Hung-Di Nei-Jing is the oldest medical textbook in the world (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). This book lays down the basic Chinese principles of medicinal theories. Some of the most specific discoveries of Chinese medicine were made during the Zhou dynasty. Some of the major discoveries mainly focused on the theoretical foundations of yin and yang, the five elements, and acupuncture. Consequently, when the basic theories of acupuncture were established, stone needles became obsolete and were being replaced by metal needles.
One of the pivotal figures of ancient Chinese medicine was Bian Que, who was a famous Chinese physician at the time of the Warring States Period. He was the first man in the world to use the pulse for diagnosis (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). He was said to be often correct in his diagnosis, outshined in using acupuncture, gave herbal prescriptions, used massage in internal medicine, and could treat of all kinds of illnesses. He wrote his own book called the Nan Jing in which he explains and simplifies some of the fundamental and most difficult parts of the Huang-Di Nei Jing (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). But this book was not the only written medical evidence found within the Chinese civilization. During the Sui Dynasty they created 50 volumes of books, divided into 67 categories, and list 1,700 syndromes (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). This encyclopedia of knowledge had a strong influence on the later development of medicine in treating the signs and symptoms of various diseases and how to deal with some by using surgery. Wang Tao was another well-known scholar of Chinese medicine who also wrote a book called Waitai Miyao. This book consisted of 40 volumes and discusses over 6,000 herbal prescriptions (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). The Tang dynasty is often referred to as the second golden age of China. It was during the Tang dynasty when China’s first school of medicine was established.
Herbal medicine and treatment in ancient China evolved in response to concepts current at the time. These notions of the causes of disease in human society related directly to the troubled environment in early China (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). Chinese archaeologists discovered a tomb in the Kansu Province. The grave contained many wooden bamboo slips, which provided important pharmaceutical data. The medical records included a list of a large amount of prescriptions, which featured about hundreds of types of drugs (Traditional Chinese Medicine History). It is evidence like this that demonstrates how Chinese herbal medicine had developed to an increased level of therapeutic complexity.
The next civilization is the Greek society, which also readily recognized the importance of physicians. They continued to develop the art of medicine and made many advances, although at first it did not seem as advanced as the Ancient Egyptians or Chinese: the Greeks tended to believe that most ailments could be healed by prayers to the gods and goddess and would often offer prayers and sacrifices to heal their sicknesses. However, this all changed with Hippocrates, one of the most famous of all physicians, and his famous oath, which is still used by doctors today, as they take a pledge to “Do No Harm” (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). His most telling contribution to the history of medicine was the separation of medicine from the divine. He believed that checking for symptoms, giving diagnoses, and administering treatment should be separated from the rituals of the common priest (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). Hippocrates’ influence on other Greek doctors helped influence our own medicine by implementing an interaction between patient and doctor, still used by modern practitioners. The Greeks were also capable surgeons and some of the equipment they used is recognizable today. Some of the tools of the Greek physicians included forceps, scalpels, tooth extraction forceps and catheters, and there were even syringes for drawing pus from wounds (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). Ancient Greek dentists used the venom from the stingray’s spine as an anesthetic (Stingrays). Finally, the Greeks knew how to splint and treat bone fractures, as well as add compresses to prevent infection. The Greeks had a good understanding of the value of cleanliness, medicines and the finer arts of surgery.
The Greeks’ knowledge was passed down to the Romans, who preserved the medical skills and refined them. However, the Roman contribution to the history of medicine is sometimes overlooked. The Romans understood the role of dirt and poor hygiene in spreading disease and created aqueducts to ensure that the population of the cities would receive clean water. Roman engineers found it important to also install elaborate sewage systems to carry away waste (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). This is something that many Europeans did not fully understand until the 19th Century. During that period, sewage was still discharged close to the drinking water (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). Their personal hygiene and obsession with cleanliness certainly acted to reduce the number of epidemics in the major cities. Furthermore, since Roman soldiers were seen as important parts of the civilization, military surgeons developed into fine practitioners (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). Their refined procedures thus ensured that fewer Roman soldiers had less of a chance of dying from infection than those in other armies. When the Roman Empire split into the Western and Eastern Empires, the Western Empire went into a deep decline along with their medicinal practices. In the Eastern Empire, based on Byzantium, doctors kept the awareness and the skills passed from the Romans and the Greeks (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine). This knowledge would form the basis of the Islamic medicine that would refine and improve medial techniques during the Islamic supremacy of the Mediterranean and Middle East. The history of medicine would now shift to the center of the Middle East and Asia for the next few centuries (Shuttleworth, Ancient Medicine).
Central to Islamic medicine was belief in the Qur’an. The Islamic holy book stated that Muslims had a duty to care for the sick and this was often referred to as “Medicine of the Prophet” (Shuttleworth, Islamic Medicine). According to the sayings of the Prophet Muhammed, he believed that Allah had sent a cure for every illness and that it was the duty of Muslim people to take care of the body and spirit. The major contribution of the Islamic Age to the history of medicine was the establishment of hospitals. These hospitals were very important in that they, along with providing care to the sick on site, sent physicians and midwives into the poorer, rural areas. They also provided a place for physicians and other staff to study and research. These hospitals differed in roles: some aimed at serving the general population, while others were providing very specific services, such as the caring for lepers or tending to the disabled and the sick (Shuttleworth, Islamic Medicine). Many Islamic physicians made exceptional discoveries in all aspects of medicine during the Islamic Golden Age. This mainly focused on building on the Greeks and Romans, but also adding their own discoveries. The Islamic scholars gathered vast amounts of information from around the known world and added their own observations in developing techniques and procedures that would form the basis of modern medicine (Shuttleworth, Islamic Medicine).
The earliest culture in India was in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. It was one of the major cities of the Indus valley civilization. The amazing part of the civilization was it had an advanced system of public sanitation. There were abundant amount of wells, bathrooms, public baths, and sewers (Lyons). Then the Aryan people invaded the Indus valley. These Aryan conquerors brought with them the basis for the subsequent religious and cultural development of India (Lyons). At first, illness was seen as a result from punishment by the gods for having sinned; however, as in the Hinduism belief, there was a chance of reincarnation. Humans were continually reborn until their karma, which is the actions of one’s existence which will determine the destiny in the next life, permitted them to nirvana.
But as time went on advances in medicine were made as a consequence to common customs at the time. In the Indian culture, cutting off the nose was an official punishment for adultery and other transgressions. As a result, the Indian surgeons had many opportunities to develop and refine reconstruction of the nose. Another similar repair established was the treatment of torn ear lobes. This was because there was a custom largely practiced which included the piercing of the ear lobes and then enlarging the opening. This would often lead to rips throughout the lobes by the consent pulling of the earring. The repair procedures described by the ancient Indians are essentially the same as in modern plastic surgery (Lyons). Early physicians came from the Brahmin caste or priests, but later members of the second and third ranking castes also took on the healing profession. The term vaidya came to be applied to all practitioners (Lyons). Trained physicians, by their very status stood high in the social system so of them even gaining exemption from taxes. The court doctors stood highest on the ladder and would often act as the one who would permit the entrance of future students into the practice. The ruler’s doctor was also an important political figure and was given considerable power and moral authority. He sat on the right hand of the sovereign during affairs of state (Lyons). Physicians included both surgery and medicine in their practice.
There have been written records that indicate epidemics and illnesses that were frequent throughout India’s history. There was also evidence of malaria, cholera, smallpox, typhoid fever, plague, leprosy, tuberculosis, as well as a multitude of other catastrophic diseases such as blindness, pulmonary affections, neurological disorders, and parasitic infestations (Lyons). Traditional medicine recognized the dangers of remaining in an area where a plague or epidemic was raging, and caution was urged in choosing water and food. Smallpox was eventually countered by vaccinating people with pus from a smallpox skin boil by puncturing it to prevent the full-blown illness (Lyons). Asoka, the great ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, instituted hospitals some for humans and others for animals. One building was usually a maternity facility where patients could stay throughout the delivery. A second structure would have contained separate areas for trainees to examine patients before reporting to the court physician. A pharmacy was also likely established for dispensing medications as well as an operating room that was set apart from areas that contained frequent sick patients. Some Indian medical practices were gradually dispersed all over Asia, including the southeast, Indonesia, Tibet, and Japan.
The last society, the Japanese civilization, is one that is often overlooked but still worth exploring. The Japanese practices of herbal medicines were actually borrowed from their neighbors in mainland China. But over the years the Japanese mastered the art and made some modifications regarding the combination of herbs. There is confusion between Chinese medicine and medicinal folklore and that of the Japanese herbs. Aside from the system of Chinese herbal medicine, there is an abundant stock of traditional medicine handed down through the generations (Dharmananda). However, there are many cases in which both Chinese medicine and Japanese folklore medicine are the same. When Chinese medicine was introduced into Japan, Japanese people had to face the problem of how to get some of the same medicinal herbs that were only indigenous to mainland China. This is because there was no cheap, consistent, and safe way to get imported herbs from another continent in old days (Dharmananda). In order to keep constant supply of herbs they had to find the equivalent herbs in Japan, since it was more convenient than to import seeds and grow them themselves. But it was not always possible to find the identical herb in Japan, so they also substituted different herbal species of similar medicinal effects for Chinese herbs. For this reason it often causes confusion between Chinese herbs and Japanese herbs to the untrained eye. During the Tokugawa era, ready-made drugs developed; because most people could not afford to get medical service from physicians, they depended on these ready-made drugs that could be circulated in various ways (Yamamoto). These drugs were spread on a nationwide scale. It is in this period when medications by drug manufacturers began to sell their products in their shops. Lastly, the other way they were spread that was very affective was through medicine peddlers traveling from village to village. This significantly contributed to healthcare of local people.
In conclusion the evolution of medicine was a contributing factor to our own modern day medicines and technologies. As said before some of the greatest contributions to our own evolution came from the Egyptian, Chinese, Greek, Roman, Muslim, Indian, and Japanese civilizations. Now understanding what these civilizations did to transform the medical world, it is amazing how they were each able to leave there own unique impact with the small amount of resources that they were able to work with. These societies were perfect examples of astounding evolutional achievements, medicine being among the best.
Works Cited
Dharmananda, Subhuti. Kampo Medicine: The Practice of Chinese Herbal Medicine in Japan. Institute for Traditional Medicine, n.d. Web. 24 November 2012. http://www.itmonline.org/arts/kampo.htm
Lyons, Albert S. Ancient India. HealthGuidance. 2012. Web. 24 November 2012. http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6311/1/Ancient-India.html
Shuttleworth, Martyn. Ancient Medicine. Explorable. 2010. Web. 24 November 2012. http://explorable.com/ancient-medicine.html#ixzz2AFCI155T
Shuttleworth, Martyn. Islamic Medicine. Explorable. 2010. Web. 24 November 2012. http://explorable.com/islamic-medicine.html
Stingrays. n.p. National Geographic, n.d. Web. 24 November 2012. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/stingray/
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Yamamoto, Yoko. Japanese Herb History. Planet Botanic. n.d. Web. 24 November 2012. http://www.planetbotanic.ca/fact_sheets/japanese_herbs/japanese_herb_history.htm