...Real Exchange Rates By Jodi Begg When discussing international trade and foreign exchange, two types of exchange rates are used. The nominal exchange rate simply states how much of one currency can be traded for a unit of another currency. The real exchange rate, on the other hand, describes how many of a good or service in one country can be traded for one of that good or service in another country. For example, a real exchange rate might state how many European bottles of wine can be exchanged for one US bottle of wine. This is, of course, a bit of an oversimplified view of reality- after all, there are differences in quality and other factors between the US wine and the European wine. The real exchange rate abstracts away these issues, and it can be thought of as comparing the cost of equivalent goods across countries. Real exchange rates can be thought of as answering the following question: If you took an item produced domestically, sold it at the domestic market price, exchanged the money you got for the item for foreign currency, and then used that foreign currency to purchase units of the equivalent item produced in the foreign country, how many units of the foreign good would you be able to buy? The units on real exchange rates, therefore, are units of foreign good over units of domestic (home country) good, since real exchange rates show how many foreign goods you can get per unit of domestic good. (Technically, the home and foreign country distinction is irrelevant...
Words: 655 - Pages: 3
...The Developing Economies, XLI-4 (December 2003): 401–35 401 EFFECTS OF THE REAL EXCHANGE RATE ON OUTPUT AND INFLATION: EVIDENCE FROM TURKEY HAKAN BERUMENT MEHMET PASAOGULLARI This paper assesses the effects of real depreciation on the economic performance of Turkey by considering quarterly data from 1987:I to 2001:III. The empirical evidence suggests that, contrary to classical wisdom, the real depreciations are contractionary, even when external factors like world interest rates, international trade, and capital flows are controlled. Moreover, the results obtained from the analyses indicate that real exchange rate depreciations are inflationary. I. INTRODUCTION interest among academics and policymakers on the controversial issue of exchange rate policies in general and exchange rate regimes and real exchange rates in particular. The effects of financial crises on the global economy are getting more severe, and international trade and capital movements have begun to be central factors in the evolution of such a crisis. Domestic factors that lead to crises in various countries are different, but there are also common features of these crises: big devaluations or depreciations in domestic currency and the subsequent significant output losses of the crisis-hit countries. Turkey has often experienced financial crises in its history. In 1994 and 2001, the nominal domestic currency depreciated 62 per cent and 53 per cent, respectively. This made the effects of large depreciations...
Words: 16182 - Pages: 65
...of Ethiopia Teferi Mequaninte tefmeq@yahoo.com May, 2005 SECTION ONE Introduction Following the introduction of the Structural adjustment program (SAP) in 1992 to the Ethiopian economy, there was a massive inflow of foreign aid in the form of grants, concessional loans and technical assistance. Net aid1 inflows to Ethiopia during the Derg period were around 7 percent of GDP and are doubled to 14 percent of GDP during the EPRDF regime. These elevated flows have raised a number of concerns, ranging from fears about the effect of aid inflows on the real exchange rate and export performance. The source of anxiety for all this is the Dutch disease problem of foreign aid. While seemingly beneficial foreign aid inflows may generate undesirable effects in the economy. These undesirable effects include a decline in export performance and manufacturing production caused by appreciation of the real exchange rate and resources moving out of manufacturing into other sectors (Timothy,1997). There are also concerns about aid sustainability. Specifically, while LDCs have been forced to take on greater burden of global adjustment, most donor countries have been unwilling to expand financial support for adjustment in the LDCs (Bigsten, 2003). These could be due to different motives by the donor countries. Instead of addressing the most developmental constraints of a recipient country, donors may wish to enhance the military prow ness of a recipient country, to promote their commercial...
Words: 4919 - Pages: 20
...A Paper Presentation on EQUILIBRIUM EXCHANGE RATE Theme: International Finance & Trade Institute Name: Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Pune Student Name: 1) Swapnil Rathi 2) Kuldeep Joshi Contact No: Swapnil – 9860222020 Kuldeep – 9028029154 Email id: swapnilrathi@siib.ac.in kuldeepjoshi@siib.ac.in 1 ABSTRACT The exchange rate is the rate at which the supply for a currency meets the demand of the same currency. As foreign exchange rates are affected by a number of factors, the equilibrium exchange rate in turn, are also influenced by its supply and demand. Hence equilibrium is achieved when a currency's demand is equal to its supply. Analysing the equilibrium levels of the exchange rates plays a crucial role in the policy making decisions of the policymakers. Exchange rates have a major influence on the prices faced by the consumers and producers throughout the world and the consequences of misalignments can be extremely costly to the nations involved. Therefore economists have developed number of methodologies for calculating the exchange rates. Each methodology involves conceptual explanations and/or imprecise estimates of key parameters and different methodologies which generate different calculated values for equilibrium exchange rates. This makes it difficult to have much confidence in estimates derived from any single methodology on its own. By the same token, it suggests that, ideally, policymakers should inform their judgments through...
Words: 7425 - Pages: 30
...IMPACT OF OIL TRADE ON EXCHANGE RATE OF INDIA Introduction India in the 21st century is one of the fastest growing countries of the world. Oil being the bloodline of the growing economy, is a necessary commodity and has a very inelastic demand, steadily growing with time. In 2011, India was the fourth largest energy consumer in the world after the United States, China, and Russia. India's economy grew at an annual rate of approximately 7 percent since 2000 and proved relatively resilient to the 2008 global financial crisis. India was the 10th largest economy in the world in 2011, as measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP). In the International Energy Outlook 2011, EIA projects India and China to account for the biggest share of Asian energy demand growth through 2035. India is heavily dependent on crude oil imported from the Middle East and imports more than 70% of its domestic demand. Due to a stagnation of domestic production, the import of crude has gone up from 11.68 million tons (mt) in 1970–1971 to 196 mt in 2007–2008. Oil import bill for India in 2007–2008 was $144.93 billion. With the high demand of oil and other petroleum, and their fluctuating price in the global markets, we are at a very high risk of foreign exchange risk. With so much purchase of energy imports, it might lead to exchange rate movements. And the volatility in the exchange rates (caused by the oil price volatility) may have severe effects on the economy, especially on infrastructural projects...
Words: 2227 - Pages: 9
...Great mistakes in currency exchange system in Iran Foreign exchange rates is a key point in good performance of economic system in each country. Currency exchange rates is a key variable in regulating incoming and outgoing of capital, importing and exporting goods in an economy. Exchange rates is one of the most important factors in maintaining competition potentials of a country in international markets and as a result, non-oil exportation of the country, and an important factor for being independent from oil export. More even that these, exchange rates is an effective factor in maintaining competitive domestic producers against importing foreign goods flood, goods that mostly resourcing from oil export price. Every economist well knows that specifying currency rates has a determinant role in maintaining the stability, mobility, economic growth and development of the country. So, even a small mistake in determining currency exchange rate leads to great costs and losses for the country. Unfortunately, Iranian politicians and their economic advisors have made great mistakes in the guidance and regulation of foreign exchange rate as they made mistake in many other economy key variables. This is either due to lack of right intelligence regarding currency exchange and its impressions on economy, which comes from great theoretical mistakes, or due to political preference rationality against economics rationality which is the result of different political pressures. Anyway, regardless...
Words: 2031 - Pages: 9
...Introduction to Exchange Rates and the Foreign Exchange Market 2 Per $ 1.225 1.084 5.238 0.703 7.750 48.160 94.860 13.220 7.460 0.609 1.000 1. Refer to the exchange rates given in the following table. Today June 25, 2010 Country Australia Canada Denmark Euro Hong Kong India Japan Mexico Sweden United Kingdom United States Per $ 1.152 1.037 6.036 0.811 7.779 46.360 89.350 12.697 7.740 0.667 1.000 Per £ 1.721 1.559 9.045 1.215 11.643 69.476 134.048 18.993 11.632 1.000 1.496 Per € 1.417 1.283 7.443 1.000 9.583 57.179 110.308 15.631 9.577 0.822 1.232 One Year Ago June 25, 2009 Source: U.S. Federal Reserve Board of Governors, H.10 release: Foreign Exchange Rates. a. Compute the U.S. dollar–yen exchange rate, E$/¥, and the U.S. dollar–Canadian dollar exchange rate, E$/C$, on June 25, 2010, and June 25, 2009 Answer: June 25, 2009: E$/¥ = 1 / (94.86) = $0.0105/¥ June 25, 2010: E$/¥ = 1 / (89.35) = $0.0112/¥ June 25, 2009: E$/C$ = 1 / (1.084) = $0.9225/C$ June 25, 2010: E$/C$ = 1 / (1.037) = $0.9643/C$ b. What happened to the value of the U.S. dollar relative to the Japanese yen and Canadian dollar between June 25, 2009 and June 25, 2010? Compute the percentage change in the value of the U.S. dollar relative to each currency using the U.S. dollar–foreign currency exchange rates you computed in (a). Answer: Between June 25, 2009 and 2010, both the Canadian dollar and the Japanese yen appreciated relative to the U.S. dollar. The percentage appreciation in the foreign currency...
Words: 5393 - Pages: 22
...Relationship Between Exchange Rate and Inflation in Pakistanby Shagufta KashifAbstractThere has been a long-standing interest in studying the factors that are responsible for uneven vacillation in the stable growth of the world economies. Lots and lots of theoretical literature and empirical evidences have addresses this issue in the past. Hike in prices of goods and services and foreign exchange are two important aspects which are deemed responsible for such potholed fluctuations in the economic growthThe volatility of the nature of prices is a major source of concern in all countries since 1970s. The issue is of a more serious nature in the developing countries where inflation in foreign countries known as “imported inflation” is seen to be driving “local/domestic inflation”; making domestic policies to control inflation ineffective. Similarly, in Pakistan, the domestic price level rose from the mid-1970s. The exchange rate started depreciating continuously from the early 1980s. Continuous devaluation of currency and inflation in the 1980s seems to suggest a correlation between the two variables.The studies by Rana and Dowling (1983) suggest that foreign inflation is the most influencing factor in explaining the change in local price level in nine less-developed countries of Asia during the period 1973-79. This study suggests that these countries cannot exercise much control over domestic inflation, however, the policies of their major trading partners (through exchange rate) had a significant...
Words: 5793 - Pages: 24
...Money: Demand and Supply The Meaning of Money Money is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people. Money Supply The money supply is a policy variable that is controlled by the Fed. * Through instruments such as open-market operations, the Fed directly controls the quantity of money supplied. Money Demand Money demand has several determinants, including interest rates and the average level of prices in the economy. People hold money because it is the medium of exchange. * The amount of money people choose to hold depends on the prices of goods and services. In the long run, the overall level of prices adjusts to the level at which the demand for money equals the supply. Figure 1 Money Supply, Money Demand, and the Equilibrium Price Level Figure 2 The Effects of Monetary Injection Chapter 31 Open-Economy Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts Open and Closed Economies * A closed economy is one that does not interact with other economies in the world. * There are no exports, no imports, and no capital flows. * An open economy is one that interacts freely with other economies around the world. An Open Economy * An open economy interacts with other countries in two ways. * It buys and sells goods and services in world product markets. * It buys and sells capital assets in world financial markets. THE INTERNATIONAL FLOW OF...
Words: 1636 - Pages: 7
...Absolute PPP * A bundle of goods should cost the same in Canada and the US once you take the exchange rate into account * Any deviations from this (if a basket of goods is cheaper in Canada than in the US) , then we should expect relative prices and the exchange rate between the 2 countries to move towards a level at which the basket of goods have the same price in the two countries. Relative PPP * The differences in the rates of inflation between two countries * Suppose the rate of inflation in Canada is higher than that in the US, causing the price of a basket of goods in Canada to rise. PPP requires the basket be the same price in each country, so this implies that the Canadian dollar must depreciate vis a vis the US dollars. The percentage change in the value of the currency should then equal the difference in the inflation rate between the two countries. Exchange Rates: Nominal exchange rate simple states how much of one currency can be traded for a unit of another currency. The real exchange rate, describes how many of a good or service in one country can be traded for one of that good or service in another country. * For example, a real exchange rate might state how many European bottles of wine can be exchanged for one US bottle of wine. Real exchange rates can be thought of as answering the following question: If you took an item produced domestically, sold it at the domestic market price, exchanged the money you got for the item for...
Words: 1032 - Pages: 5
...instructor’s discretion. Chapter 14 1. a. Given that the interest rate has been 4 percent for the last ten quarters, then for IS curve I, real GDP equals 8,800 − 25(4) − 25(4) − 25(4) − 25(4) − 20(4) − 20(4) − 20(4) − 15(4) − 15(4) − 10(4) = 8,000. For IS curve II, real GDP equals 8,400 − 5(4) − 5(4) − 5(4) − 5(4) − 10(4) − 15(4) − 15(4) − 15(4) − 20(4) = 8,000. b. For IS curve I, real GDP in the first quarter equals 8,800 − 25(3) − 25(4) − 25(4) − 25(4) − 20(4) − 20(4) − 20(4) − 15(4) − 15(4) − 10(4) = 8,025. Using the same IS curve, it is easy to show that for quarters two through ten, real GDP equals 8,050, 8,075, 8,100, 8,120, 8,140, 8,160, 8,175, 8,190, and 8,200, respectively. For IS curve II, real GDP in the first quarter equals 8,400 − 5(3) − 5(4) − 5(4) − 5(4) − 5(4) − 10(4) − 15(4) − 15(4) − 15(4) − 20(4) = 8,005. Using the same IS curve, it is easy to show that for quarters two through ten, real GDP equals 8,010, 8,015, 8,020, 8,025, 8,035, 8,050, 8,065, 8,080, and 8,100, respectively. c. Real GDP increases by 200 billion for IS curve I. The increase in real GDP for IS curve II equals 100 billion. d. For IS curve I, it takes four quarters, or twelve months, for real GDP to increase by 100 billion or one-half of the total increase in real GDP. For IS curve II, it takes seven quarters, or twenty-one months, for real GDP to increase by 50 billion or one-half of the total increase in real GDP. e. IS curve I resembles the economy’s response prior to 1991...
Words: 1392 - Pages: 6
...Chapter 8 The Policy Trilemma in Open Economies Chapters 6 and 7 discussed the choice of an exchange rate regime as a monetary policy instrument, and examined the advantages and disadvantages of pursuing fixed versus floating exchange rate regimes under perfect capital mobility. Under each regime, we considered the effectiveness of fiscal policy, effectiveness of conventional monetary policy (ability to influence domestic short term interest rates), and exchange rate stability. We found that, although only a credible fixed exchange rate regime achieves bilateral exchange rate stability, no single exchange rate regime entirely dominates the other in terms of the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies. These findings suggest that the choice of an exchange rate regime presents genuine tradeoffs for policy makers, and it is time to discuss several factors that would guide such a choice in practice. In reality, hard pegs and floats represent the two idealized extremes of a spectrum of exchange rate regimes. Within that spectrum, there is a variety of options available to policy makers, but these options require additional policy instruments. One such policy instrument is capital controls, which affect the incentives underlying international capital mobility. So, in this chapter we discuss the form and consequences of these capital controls as a policy instrument. Given that capital controls constitute a third policy instrument, it is useful conceptualize policy choices using three intermediate...
Words: 2810 - Pages: 12
...HW 4 Solutions 2. a. Percentage change of exchange rate from 2009-2010: Canada=(0.9643-0.9225)/0.9225=4.53% Mexico=(0.0788-0.0756)/0.0756=4.23% China=(0.1473-0.1454)/0.1454=1.31% Japan=(0.0112-0.0105)/0.0105=6.67% b. Percentage change in the nominal effective exchange rate for the United States between 2009 and 2010: =(4.53%*36%)+(4.23%*28%)+(1.31%*20%)+(6.67%*16%)=(+)4.14% United States' effective exchange rate has depreciated by 4.14%. c. The value of U.S. dollar has depreciated by 4.14% against the basket. Compared with the change in the value of the U.S. dollar relative to the Mexican Peso, where U.S. dollar depreciated 4.23% against Peso, the 4.14% depreciation of the U.S. dollar against FX basket is smaller. The reason is that Mexico only take 28% of trade share of United States, there are also other trade partners whose currency also could affect the nominal exchange rate for U.S. For this question, U.S. dollar only depreciated 1.31% against Chinese yuan, which bring down the number of overall depreciation of U.S. dollar against foreign currency basket. 6. a. The investor's return on euro-denominated Dutch deposits is €1,000*(1+4.04%)=€1,040.4 b. Using forward cover, the euro-denominated return on British deposits is €1,000*(1.575/1.5)*(1+2%)=€1,071 c. Yes, there is an arbitrage opportunity because the euro-dominated return on British deposits is higher than that on Dutch deposits. The net return...
Words: 1355 - Pages: 6
...ECON101 ESSAY -Foreign exchange -AE questions -Demand pull/Cost push Fiscal or Monitory policy - Money market (Demand/Supply) (Definition of Economics) Scarcity refers to the situation where resources (like labor and time) are limited but the wants are unlimited. (GDP) - GDP DEFINED GDP or gross domestic product is the market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given time period. - Final Goods and Services GDP is the value of the final goods and services produced. A final good (or service) is an item bought by its final user during a specified time period. Real GDP per capita = Real GDP/Population (Real GDP Fluctuations ) A business cycle is a periodic but irregular up-and-down movement of total production and other measures of economic activity. Every cycle has two phases: 1 Expansion 2 Recession and two turning points: 1 Peak 2 Trough (List 4) Factors not in GDP that influence the standard of living are * Household production * Underground economic activity * Health and life expectancy * Leisure time * Environmental quality * Political freedom and social justice (Fixed Prices and Expenditure Plans) Disposable income is either spent on consumption goods and services, C, or saved, S. That is, Yd = C + S (MARGINAL PROPENSITY TO CONSUME) It is calculated as the change in consumption expenditure, △C, divided by the change in disposable income...
Words: 1572 - Pages: 7
...factors constrain the ability of banks to create money? There are 3 factors constrain the ability of banks to create money: 1. The monetary base 2. Desired reserves 3. Desired currency holding Question 2 Provide short answers to the following: (a) Explain how the money market determines the nominal interest rate. The nominal interest rate on other assets minus the nominal interest rate on money is the opportunity cost of holding money. (b) Discuss in detail how an open market purchase of securities by the Reserve Bank impacts the money market in the short run. Starting from a short-run equilibrium, if the Reserve Bank increases the quantity of money, people find themselves holding more money than the quantity demanded. With a surplus of money holding, people enter the loanable funds market and buy bonds. (c) Explain how the money market then moves back to equilibrium in the long run. What has happened to the interest rate and price level in the long run? First, the nominal interest rate falls. The real interest rate falls too, as people try to get rid of their excess money holdings and buy bonds. With a lower real interest rate, people want to borrow and spend more. Firms want to borrow to invest and households want to borrow to invest in bigger homes or to buy more consumer goods. The increase in the demand for goods cannot be met by an increase in supply because...
Words: 951 - Pages: 4