...Chapter 5 Learning 1. Experience causes learning if it results in a a. cognitive understanding of what has changed. b. internal changes in the organism which may or may not be detectable. c. relatively permanent change in behaviour, capability or attitude. d. maturation of the targeted area. The term learning applies to behaviour changes a. that are relatively permanent. b. that result from maturation. c. stemming from fatigue, drugs or illness. d. that are temporary. Which behaviours are considered to be learned? a. Those occurring as a result of maturation b. Those occurring as a result of illness c. Those occurring as a result of experience d. Those occurring as a result of fatigue An important aspect of the definition of learning is that the learned behaviour a. is a result of experience. b. is present in all adult members of the species. c. must be adaptive for the organism. d. must be observable. Birds' migration and salmon's spawning are not considered learned behaviours, because they a. are not relatively permanent. b. do not result from experience. c. have not been reinforced. d. are not always overt. Which of the following would be an example of learning, according to the definition in the text? a. Now that he is six feet and three inches tall, Michael can dunk a basketball. b. Andy rides his bicycle without training wheels for the first time. c. The newborn calf stands up and begins to walk. d. A spider spins its first web. Classical conditioning was most thoroughly...
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...environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Behaviorism is based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior. It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response. In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process. The Unconditioned Stimulus The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. The Unconditioned Response The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response...
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...response to the second stimulus can be achieved by initiating only the first stimulus. This theory involves learning a new behavior through the process of association. In this theory, we assume that the surrounding shapes behavior and also those mental or internal states of a human or animal like feelings or thoughts are not relevant in behavioral explanations. Part I For a classically conditioned learning process in my life, I always study and do my academic activities normally homework on my desk. After a long, hard semester; I realize that the sight of that desk or sitting on it depresses me. I always associate the desk with not only huge but also difficult academic tasks hence being at it, even if I am free after the semester, it reminds me of books to read or simply hard tasks to be done. This has a panic and fear effect on me because the desk is associated with strenuous tasks. A classically conditioned learning process has got several stages or steps which include: neural stimulus (NS), Unconditional stimulus (UCS), Unconditional response (UCR), Conditioned stimulus (CS) and Conditioned response (CR). Neural stimulus (NS) has no effect on behavior or person unless it is paired with the unconditioned stimuli. It can be a person, event, object etc. In my case, the neural stimulus is the study desk. This is because it cannot cause depression if it were to be used for activities that are fun like for instance playing computer games. The unconditioned stimulus (US) is one naturally...
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...associative learning where two stimuli happen in a combined as well as frequent manner because of which, they ultimately become linked with each other. The outcome of this union is that each stimulus sooner or later generates an identical response. In fact, this technique is applied in behavioral training in which Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is paired with and leads towards the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) until the conditioned stimulus unaccompanied is enough to bring out the response (Abell et al., 1999). To understand it clearly, there is need to recall the experiment performed by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920. Watson suggested that psychological researches should be based merely on apparent behaviors and due to this viewpoint, his research was related with conditioning of fear (learned). He demonstrated above conditioning via usual procedures including association of stimuli, and research subject chosen by him for the purpose was an 11-month old child Albert. Albert was an extremely firm infant who hardly ever exhibited fear of anything involving the white rat present in laboratory, but Watson and Rayner noticed that he was afraid of loud noises (Unconditioned Stimulus). They decided to implement this innate fear response (Unconditioned Response (UR)) shown by Albert as a tool in their study. So; they created piercing sound by striking a big steel pipe with hammer. In fact, they were trying to observe whether Albert can be conditioned to fear the white rat if his access...
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...2013 Richard Alpert Phobias and Addictions Phobias and Addictions are behaviors that are learned through association to a stimulus. A phobia is an irrational fear of a specific object or situation (Kowalski& Westen, 2011). Addiction is compulsive need for and use of a habit-forming substance. Both phobias and addictions are learned by association and by learning methods such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Some phobias are believed to be developed through classical conditioning. If a neutral stimulus is paired with and unconditioned stimulus that creates an unconditioned response that causes fear, a conditioned stimulus of fear will occur every time you encounter the neutral stimulus. In a study performed by JohnWatson, the founder of American behaviorism, he tested the theory of phobias developed through classical conditioning. Choosing a healthy nine month old baby, Little Albert, he experimented with a rat and loud banging of a steel hammer. After being presented with the rat, Little Albert played with the rat and had no fear. After being presented with the steel being banged, he became scared. After a few months of combining the rat with the loud banging, Little Albert became very fearful of the rat. Little Albert learned to associate the loud banging with the rat. This classical conditioning produced a conditioned stimulus or an emotional response of fear and a phobia. Addiction is a learned behavior because the initial pleasure or enjoyment is...
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...psychologists became interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. It was argued that more needs to be more studies conducted with results that could be quantified. This is where learning theories began and were able to be applied to, a useful behavior, but also could be applied to emotions such as hatred, or even to bad habits. The three theories that are most common are the Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Social-Cognitive Conditioning. Classical Conditioning is a form of learning in which the conditioned stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus. Researchers have used “many model systems that have been developed to explore classical conditioning, including conditioned eye blink, conditioned taste aversion, and conditioned approach/avoidance.” (Domjan, 2003). An example of this type of conditioning would be someone who has been involved in a bad accident at a certain intersection. As a result of this accident, every time they drive through this intersection they become exceedingly uncomfortable and nauseous. This particular case has an unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and a conditioned response. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the car accident while the unconditioned response (UCR) is nervousness and anxiety. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the sight of the intersection where the accident took place, while the conditioned response (CR) would still be...
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...5 learning 160 chapter chapter outline A Four-Legged Co-Worker Declan lies on his back wanting his belly scratched. The eight-year-old black Labrador cross swings his legs in the air for a few minutes before resigning himself to chewing on someone’s shoe. In the office he behaves like any pet dog, but in the field he is like a tornado—focused on finding illegal drugs being smuggled. Declan is a drug-detector dog for the Customs Service and has been busting drug smugglers with his handler, Kevin Hattrill, for eight years. Airport passengers look on with curiosity as Declan darts around people and their luggage. Within minutes he sniffs out a person of interest, who is taken away and questioned by airport authorities. Dogs like Declan are trained to detect illegal drugs, such as cannabis, methamphetamine, and cocaine, or explosives. Hattrill said the dogs were dual responsetrained when they detected something. “If the odor is around a passenger, they are trained to sit beside them. If it’s around cargo, they are trained to scratch. When they detect something, their whole temperament will change. “The dogs can screen up to 300 people within 10 to 15 minutes at the airport. Nothing else can do that.” (McKenzie-McLean, 2006, p. 7) module 15 Classical Conditioning The Basics of Classical Conditioning Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior Extinction Generalization and Discrimination module 16 Operant Conditioning The Basics of Operant Conditioning...
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...Notes for Week 2 classical conditioning n (Psychology) Psychol the alteration in responding that occurs when two stimuli are regularly paired in close succession: the response originally given to the second stimulus comes to be given to the first See also conditioned response Paradigm-one that serves as a pattern or model. Stimuli may acquire their capacity to elicit sexual motivational responses through basic associative learning processes such as classical conditioning Read electronic reading on classical conditioning Read physiotherapy-provided operant conditioning . Film on broken brain experimental psychology, how far researcher prepared to go to get answers the last 100 years experimental psychology has endeavored to reveal the workings of the human mind. It's methods have been sometimes brutal. The study of individuals who through unfortunate events have suffered damage to their brains has implications for us all. The cognitive approaches that emphasizes the role of thought and social experience in learning what unites these two approaches is a common philosophical ancestor: the concept of association Aristotle proposed a set of laws of association to account for learning and memory the most important is the law of contiguity which propes that two events will become connected in the mind if they are experienced close together in time (Such as thunder and lightning). Law of similarity which states that objects that resemble each other such as two people...
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...once the danger is over whereas anxiety experience tension and uneasiness lasted longer. Once fear and anxiety escalated, anxiety disorder developed which is what we known as phobia. As of what we understand etiology of fear and phobias are developed through classical conditioning in most cases. A very famous study that illustrated such example was Little Albert in John B. Watson’s experiment. Through this experiment, fear (unconditioned response) could be conditioned by a white mouse (neutral stimulus) with a loud sound (unconditioned stimulus) - which clearly proven his theory of Classical Conditioning – fear was innate. The child automatically sensed danger and elicited fear response when the loud sound was projected. Subsequently, the child displayed similar reaction to other fuzzy white objects (conditioned response). An example of innate fear for some people would be experiencing increased heart rate when they looked down from top of skyscraper. Seligman (1970, 1971) proposed that classical conditioning ‘works better’ when a relevant stimulus paired up with the US (unconditioned stimulus) is apparently easier to condition compare to an irrelevant stimulus. Like in Little Albert’s case, it was the white rat. He explained further by humans have some biological preparedness in us through evolutionary history that we are biological ‘programmed’ to fear certain situations and objects. Like for example, we are not able to relate knife with danger unless we experienced it with...
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...situations; psychologists use this term to describe patterns of emotional disturbance. Both behavioural and psychoanalytic psychologists use this in different ways. The behavioural theory is based on two main factors being biological drives such as primitive needs and sex drive and what is learnt. The three main principles in the behavioural theory are Stimuli, response and conditioning. Behaviour is believed to be a conditioned response to an environmental stimulus. Individuals are obliged to react to stimuli using their senses such as seeing and hearing. There are short lived unlearned behaviours such as suckling and unlearned grasping. Responses are overt and implicit, learned or unlearned. Response can be foreseen if stimuli are available and stimuli can be predicted from the response. Unlearned responses are automatic such as breathing heavily and perspiring when running. Unlearned behaviours are conditioned soon after birth. Learned responses are due to conditioning and habit forming. Innately, unconditioned stimuli produce response for example looking away from bright light. Outcomes are Dependant on how a response has been conditioned for example a young child may learn to be fearful of a dog or have interest in one. Behaviourist state that learned behaviour is...
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...a result of this critical look at behaviorism, its weaknesses as a comprehensive personality theory are revealed. At the same time, its merits when restricted to certain areas of psychology and treatment of disorders are discussed. For as long as human beings can remember, they have always been interested in what makes them who they are and what aspects of their being set each of them apart from others of their species. The answer according to behaviorists is nothing more than the world in which they grew up. Behaviorism is the theory that human nature can be fully understood by the laws inherent in the natural environment. As one of the oldest theories of personality, behaviorism dates back to Descartes, who introduced the idea of a stimulus and called the person a machine dependent on external events whose soul was the ghost in the machine. Behaviorism takes this idea to another level. Although most theories operate to some degree on the assumption that humans have some sort of free will and are moral thinking entities, behaviorism refuses to acknowledge the internal workings of persons. In the mind of the behaviorist, persons are nothing more than simple mediators between behavior and the environment (Skinner, 1993, p 428). The dismissal of the internal workings of human beings leads to one problem opponents have with the behavioral theory. This, along with its incapability of explaining the human phenomenon of language and memory,...
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... Evaluation: Key behaviourist psychologists: Pavlov & Watson * Unreliable method of investigation * Different participants provide different introspective reports about same stimulus. * Trained in introspection not very useful * Pavlov got reliable, reproducible results in experiments on animals and can be generalised to humans * Can’t study on children and animals due to limited vocab and can’t express feelings properly. * Animal thoughts can’t be studied * Learning, development, mental disorders & personality can’t investigate through introspection – questions validity of using introspection as a method for investigating human behaviour because it’s subjective (only his/her can report mental processes * For Watson, only way to make psychology a science is to emulate natural science and adopt its own objective methods * Psychologists often use it alongside other scientific methods to investigate. Key behaviourist psychologists: Pavlov & Watson * Unreliable method of investigation * Different participants provide different introspective reports about same stimulus. * Trained in introspection not very useful * Pavlov got reliable, reproducible results in experiments on animals and can be generalised to humans * Can’t study on children and animals due to limited vocab and can’t express feelings properly. * Animal thoughts can’t be studied...
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...directing behavior. Kowalski & Westen (2009) affirm, "Learning is essentially about prediction-predicting the future from past experience and using these predictions to guide behavior" (p. 156). The most rudimental aspect of the theory of classical conditioning transcribes to the conditioning of a neutral stimulus to elicit a response similar to the unconditioned response brought about by the unconditioned stimulus. Theory of Classical Conditioning The classical conditioning procedure involves introducing a neutral stimulus that in due course becomes a conditioned stimulus; this systematic approach to conditioning enlists a formerly neutral stimulus to elicit a response after pairing with a stimulus that already automatically elicits that same response. In other words, an unconditioned reflex (response) occurs naturally, without prior learning; salivation, the unconditioned response (UR) occurs at the sight of food, the unconditioned stimulus (US). Unconditioned stimulus (US) produces an unconditioned response (UR), a response that does not require learning. In Pavlov's dog experiments, immediately prior to presenting the US (the food), Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus (a ringing bell), which normally does not elicit a response (salivation). After pairing the two...
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...something is before being affected by outside influences. 2. Classical conditioning works by: - pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that elicited an unconditioned response; over time the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and produces a conditioned response 3. Extinction occurs when: -the pairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus stops 4. Systematic desensitization is: - Deconditioning of phobias; -Extinguishes fear by gradually relaxing subject and( simultaneous gradual introduction of the fear inducing stimulus; -Focus is on conditioning „from the outside” 5. Operant conditioning was theorized by: -B.F. Skinner 6. A simple association between a stimulus and a response is called a: -Habit 7. The likelihood of responding in certain ways is built up in a hierarchy of acquired drives. This is a prime tenet of which theory? -Social learning theory 8. Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of: -that a behavior will be repeated. The term negative means that a stimulus is removed after the behavior occurs (e.g., removing a child’s chores after he does his homework). In this case, an unpleasant stimulus is removed. 9. The frustration – aggression hypothesis states: -that frustration leads to aggression 10...
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...was able to apply a classical conditioning theory. The description of the scenario will be detailed as well as demonstrated on a chart which was prepared in order to illustrate how someone would apply a classical conditioning theory to the selected scenario. It is important to remember that classical conditioning is a technique that is used in primarily behavioral training. Usually it is when a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a responsive stimulus. Afterwards a more previously neutral stimulus is then paired with the more naturally occurring stimulus. The outcome is that the previously neutral stimulus comes in to evoke and the response is without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The most common names given to the two following elements are known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned responses. Classical conditioning came to life through the hard work and dedication from the well world renowned investigations of Psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov Born September 14, 1849 in Russia knew from very early he loved the study of psychology and worked hard on focusing on the Classical Conditioning theory “Operant and classical conditioning are two different ways in which organisms come to reflect the order of the environment around them” ( Charles, 2014). Using an example regarding a Dog in purposes such as to sit or training my partner to clean the house is perfect especially when trying to demonstrate classical conditioning and its theories...
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