HISTORY OF BAKING
On today’s market there is a never ending variety of the most delicious sweets and pastries to please both the palate and the eyes. We have become so used to this diverse range of bread, mouth watering pastries and cakes that seldom we ask just how they come into existence. I guess my initial interest in the origin of the baking industry was not aroused by accident; rather I suspect it was kindled by a chain of events occurring earlier in my life... My Grandfather owned a small hotel and bakery in Switzerland and when he retired my father who was an excellent pastry cook continued the business. As a small child I spent many hours watching my dad at work and later followed in his footsteps almost as a matter of course. Then again, I have a suspicion that it may have been “fate-by-design” that made me take up pastry-cooking. The question still remains, was my career pre-determined by the fact that my grandfather had thousands of letterheads printed for his bakery which included his name? The prospect of a hefty quantity discount would no doubt have made perfect sense to my frugal fore bearer; it must have been so much cheaper getting all this printing done in a big way. Grandfather should have realised (and I suspect that he might have) that there was not the slightest chance that any one generation could ever use up this huge mountain of stationery. Granddad’s first name “Fritz” was also my father’s first name and when I was born there was never any question as to what my name should be! After all there were still zillions of these letterheads leftover, so let’s not waste any money! Anyhow, Fritz was considered a perfectly good name by all and “Pfister” being the old Swiss/German form used for “Baker” just another indication of a long family tradition.
Until modern days the old brotherhood of Swiss bakers was called the “Zunft der Pfistern”. |

| | | Grandfather Pfister | My Dad as an Apprentice | “LINDE” the old family Bakery in Pfungen near Winterthur |

The interesting history of baking and pastry-cooking! – Or how did it all start?
One thing is sure, people could never have survived without food, but what is now called the “staff of life,” bread, and the making of it started in comparatively recent times. Right in the beginning of recorded history there was the discovery of fire making, thus along with light, heat could be generated. Then there followed the discovery of different grasses and their seeds which could be prepared for nourishment. With the help of heat and grain, one was now able to prepare a kind of broth. Hot stones were covered with this broth or the broth was roasted on embers and “hey presto” the first unsoured flat bread was created. This ability to prepare stable food radically changed the eating habits and lifestyle of our early ancestors, from being hunters they became settlers. The Egyptians
Records show that already in the years 2600-2100 B.C. bread was baked by Egyptians, who it is believed had learned the skill from the Babylonians. A relief representing the royal bakery of Ramses features bread and cakes, some of these were shaped in the form of animals and used for sacrifices. Other early records, this time by the Greek scholar (Aristophanes 450-385 B.C), show the existence of honey flans and patterned tortes. According to Aristophanes, the ancient Greeks also had a type of doughnut made from crude flour and honey called “Dispyrus” a ring-cake that was submerged in wine and consumed hot.
Could this have been an early version of Baba or Savarin, still so popular today? |

A relief representing the royal bakery of Ramses III who reigned over Egypt in the 12 th century B.C. The Roman Empire
Inevitably Greek culture influenced the Roman Empire ; bakery know-how was transformed and really flourished. During the fourth century A.D., evidence also emerges of the first pastry-cook’s association or “pastillarium” in those times nomenclature. Now it is well known, the Romans were a lusty, festivity loving lot and even though a decree was passed by the Senate designed to curb excesses by citizens, the sweet art of pastry-cooking (considered decadent by some) emerged as a highly respected profession. Indeed the bakery business was so profitable that in the time of Christ around three hundred independent bakers existed in Rome . Just how rewarding and diverse the trade then was is recorded by Cato (234-148 B.C.) Could it be that the French word Gâteaux used for tortes is a derivative of this man’s name? Anyhow, Cato names a great many different kinds of bread, sacrificial cakes “libum”, cakes made with flour, groats and cress “placenta”, pretzels” spira”, tortes “scibilata”, fritters “globus apherica”, Bowl-cake “erneum”, sweet cake “savaillum” and sidrer-cake “mustaceum”.
Quite a large selection made by early Roman “Dulciarius” or “Flour Confectioners”, isn’t it?

Engravings on a tomb-stone of a Roman baker, dating back to the first century A.D., show the different stages in the production of bread at that time. |

Section of engravings on a tomb-stone of the Roman baker M.Vergilius Eurysaces in Rome . Clearly visible in this picture, an excavated bakery in Pompeii , is the bread oven with its chimney and in the foreground the remains of two grain-mills. Europe
From the Roman Empire, the art of pastry-cooking gradually spread throughout Europe and the world.One of the best known painters, the Dutchman, Rembrandt, created a sketch in 1635 showing a pancake cook in the streets, surrounded by children eagerly waiting and hoping for a sample. In Holland such pancake cooks belonged to the daily street scene at that time. |
The House of the Bakers in Pompeii | The Ginger Bread Merchant
Portrayed on the right is a gingerbread merchant selling his wares in one of the better streets in London .He uses a hand-cart as a shop on wheels, in contrast to the rather primitive shops of the ordinary merchants.Anecdotally, specially famed was the ginger bread from the city of Grantham . The two illustrations below are original copperplate engravings and depict street scenes in Germany . The image, on the left is that of a pie-man selling his pastries in Strasburg and on the right a pastry-cook selling small cakes in Hamburg , 1800. | | | |

The Original Open-Air Café or Dining Al Fresco!
This above lithography by C.T.Travies shows a typical early last century scene in Paris . A “Patissiere” has established herself in a busy street, possibly on a bridge, and sells hot coffee and freshly baked cakes to passers-by. I hope you have enjoyed this brief tour into the history of baking; things have changed a great deal from the “olden days”! Never the less, intending bakers could benefit from taking a “Janusian approach”, that is to say - looking in both directions, the past and the future. Bakers can anticipate trends and developments by looking at what is happening elsewhere in the world. Fred Pfister |

Malpractices * 1. Using old/poor quality ingredients
2, Failure to preheat oven to proper starting temperature
3. Improper pan size or type for recipe
4. Substituting ingredients that are not similar to ones called for
5. Uncalibrated oven temperature * * 1 ) over or under-mixing
2 ) Outdated leavening agent ( b. soda , b. powder , yeast )
3 ) Not calibrating oven temperature , all ovens are different , get a thermometer and check to see oven is heating properly
4 ) too much or to little fat in the mix . ( butter , lard , oil , etc.)
5 ) Incorrect substitutions , the most common I have seen is the wrong flour for the job . * not room temping the ingredients when called for. allowing the product to sit around before baking, losing its air, thus negating the mixing process overworking the ingredients not following procedures and allowing air pockets to form, or taking the proper steps to get rid of them . For instance, not cutting through angel food cake batter with a knife before baking. uneven distribution of the product into the pan not prepping the pan with grease/flour/etc as directed causing the product to stick adding the ingredients in the wrong order or not following steps in the right order, not completing a step. for instance not creaming the butter and sugar completely chilling the bowl and beaters if directed. not cooling the product as directed [wire rack, paper, turning it upside down] * 1. over mixing
2. no leaving product (yeast, baking powder, or baking soda)
3. uneven oven temperature, or wrong oven temperature
4. cooking the product the wrong amount of time
5. too much fat, or not enough fat (oil, butter,or vegetable butter)

Baking safety

When you are in a kitchen many hazards lurk in the drawers and cabinets, including sharp knives, mixers and other tools. But a kitchen can actually be a very safe place with a few precautions. No matter what kind of stove you use, heat is involved and heat can cause fire. Even electric stoves can catch things on fire. Since you know this, don't put cloth dishtowels or pot holders close to the stove. One of the oldest and most common ingredients you can use to put out a fire in the kitchen is baking soda. Most bakers always have this on hand so it is an easy fix.

Never keep your bowl too close to the edge of a counter when mixing as it may fall off. Then you will have broken glass, or at least a lovely mess to clean up. The bowl could also land on your foot and bruise or break it. Mixer blades are big safety issue. They turn at incredible speed and if you allow your fingers to get in the turning blades the finger could be very badly injured. Safety should always be a first in the eye of a baker. If you want to produce wondrous things then you have to be sure they make it to the table!

Safe baking is a matter of habit. If you do something consistently for 20 days it becomes a habit. If this is true, you should be able to develop safer baking habits in the same time frame.
General Laboratory Safety Practices
The purpose of this guide is to promote safety awareness and encourage safe work practices in the laboratory. These are guidelines; they should serve as a reminder of things you can do to work more safely. Although these guidelines are applicable to all research, teaching and academic laboratories, your lab may require more specialized rules that apply to specific materials and equipment. Please see your Laboratory Supervisor (LS) or Principal Investigator (PI) for more information before beginning work in the lab.

Awareness * Be alert to unsafe conditions and actions, and call attention to them so that corrections can be made as soon as possible. * Label all storage areas, refrigerators, etc., appropriately, and keep all chemicals in properly labeled containers. * Date all bottles when received and when opened. * Note expiration dates on chemicals. * Note special storage conditions. * Be familiar with the appropriate protective measures to take when exposed to the following classes of hazardous materials. Information is available from your lab supervisor, DES and the chemistry library: * Flammables * Radioactive Compounds * Corrosives * Biohazards | * Toxics * Carcinogens * Reactives * Compressed Gases | * Segregate chemicals by compatibility groups for storage. * Be aware of the potential interactions of lab furniture and equipment with chemicals used or stored in the lab. (e.g., are oxidizers stored directly on wooden shelving?) * Post warning signs for unusual hazards such as flammable materials, biohazards or other special problems. * Pour more concentrated solutions into less concentrated solutions to avoid violent reactions (i.e., Always add acid to water; not water to acid). * Avoid distracting any other worker. Practical jokes or horseplay have no place in the laboratory. * Use equipment only for its designated purpose. * Position and secure apparatus used for hazardous reactions in order to permit manipulation without moving the apparatus until the entire reaction is complete.

Personal Safety Respiratoryand Body Protection | * Use fume hoods whenever possible. * Splash proof safety goggles should be worn at all times in the laboratory. * Laboratory coat/apron should be worn in the laboratory. * Appropriate gloves should be worn as needed. * Appropriate closed-toed shoes should be worn in the laboratory. * Respirators may only be worn by individuals that have completed respirator training and fit testing through DES and obtained a respirator medical clearance form the University Health Center. |

Personal Hygiene | * Wash hands before leaving laboratory. * Launder clothing worn in laboratory separately from other clothing. * Never mouth pipette anything in the lab. * Never eat, drink or apply cosmetics in a laboratory or areas where chemicals/hazardous agents are stored. (Smoking is prohibited in all areas of University buildings, including laboratories.) * Never store food in a refrigerator where hazardous materials are stored. * Never eat or drink from laboratory glassware. * Avoid wearing contact lenses in the laboratory. * Avoid situating long hair, loose sleeves/cuffs, rings, bracelets, etc. in close proximity to open flames or operating machinery. * Keep exposed skin covered. Shorts, sleeveless or short sleeve shirts, skirts or open-toed shoes should not be worn in the laboratory. |

Fire Prevention * Be aware of ignition sources in lab area (open flames, heat, electrical equipment). * Purchase and store flammable reagents in the smallest quantities available. * Store flammable liquids that require refrigeration in explosion-proof refrigerators. * Store flammable liquids in appropriate safety cabinets and/or safety cans. * Do not store incompatible reagents together (e.g., acids with flammables). Lists of incompatible reagents can be found in several source books (for example, Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards). See Appendix V for a table of some commonly-used laboratory chemicals and incompatibilities. * Do not store ethers or conjugated dienes for extended periods of time as explosive peroxides could form. Date ethers when received and opened. * Make sure that all electrical cords are in good condition. All electrical outlets should be grounded and should accommodate a 3-pronged plug. Never remove the grounding prong or use an adapter to bypass the grounding on an electrical cord. * Remain out of the area of a fire or personal injury unless it is your responsibility to meet the emergency responders. Meet responders from a safe location. * Be aware of the condition of fire extinguishers. Report any broken seals, damage, low gauge pressure or improper mounting to DES Fire Protection, (301) 405-3960. If the seal has been broken, assume that the fire extinguisher has been used and must be recharged. (Note: Do not use fire extinguishers unless you are trained and feel confident to do so.) Report ALL fires by phoning 911. * Automatic fire sprinklers must remain clear and unblocked to function properly. Do not store materials within 18" below the sprinkler head.

Housekeeping * Eliminate safety hazards by maintaining laboratory work areas in a good state of order. * Maintain at least two clear passages to laboratory exits. * Always keep tables, fume hoods, floors, aisles and desks clear of unnecessary material. * Wipe down bench tops and other laboratory surfaces after each use with an appropriate cleaning or disinfecting agent. * All equipment should be inspected before use. * Use borosilicate glassware for laboratory work. If dichromate/sulfuric acid glass cleaner is used in your laboratory, make sure that cleaning is confined to the fume hood as toxic chromyl chlorides are released from the dichromate/sulfuric acid solution.
Better yet, switch to a non-chromate cleaning solution. (i.e., No Chromix®) which will also minimize hazardous waste generation. * If experiments must be left unattended, place a note next to experimental apparatus indicating the chemicals involved, your name and a number where you can be reached in case of an emergency. * Keep the laboratory floor dry at all times. Immediately attend to spills of chemicals or water, and notify other lab workers of potential slipping hazards. * All machinery under repair or adjustment should be properly tagged prior to servicing. All service work should be done by authorized personnel. * Sink traps and floor drains should be flushed and filled with water on a regular basis to prevent the escape of sewer gases or the release of chemical odors in the event of an emergency. Drains which will not be routinely used may be "topped" with 20 - 30 ml of mineral oil to prevent evaporation of water in the trap. * All compressed gas cylinders should be securely chained or clamped to a rack or fixed stationary piece of lab furniture. Mark empty cylinders, but use all safety precautions as if the cylinder were full.

Emergency Procedures * In the event of an emergency, remember one number: 911. By calling this number, all necessary emergency response departments can then be alerted to your needs. * Be familiar with the emergency evacuation plan. * Be sure the names and phone numbers of lab personnel to be contacted in an emergency are posted in the lab or outside of the door. * Be familiar with the location, use and limitations of the following safety devices: * safety shower * eye wash station * protective respiratory gear * fume hood | * spill cleanup materials * first aid kit * fire alarm * fire extinguisher | * Clean up all small spills immediately. If a large chemical spill occurs, call the campus emergency phone number, 911. If the spill poses a hazard to individuals outside of the laboratory, follow the laboratory's emergency standard operating procedure. Stop current reactions or equipment if possible, activate the building fire alarm, exit the building, call 911 to report the emergency and stand by at a safe distance to provide information to emergency response personnel. * If volatile, flammable, or toxic materials spill, shut off flames and spark-producing equipment at once and evacuate. * In the event of fire or explosion, activate the building fire alarm, exit the building, call 911 to report the emergency and standby in a safe location to meet emergency responders. * Do not cover windows of laboratory doors, except for special experimental requirements. This allows passers-by to notice if anyone is in need of emergency assistance. * Maintain a clear path to all safety equipment at all times.

Waste Disposal * Minimize Wastes at the source by limiting the quantities of materials purchased and used. * Segregate and prepare chemical wastes for disposal in accordance with the procedures issued by DES. (See "UM Waste Disposal Guidelines" wall chart. Copies are available through DES at (301) 405-3960.) * Dispose of all waste in designated containers. There are many different types of containers used at the UM for the collection of wastes. Know which ones are appropriate for the wastes you generate. Questions may be directed to Hazardous Waste Management, DES at (301) 405-3990 or (301) 405-3968.

Miscellaneous * Children and pets should not be brought into the laboratory. * If work is being conducted after hours, let other laboratory personnel know of your presence. If possible, avoid carrying out experimental laboratory work in an unoccupied building.
Safety Equipment
An expanding array of federal, state, and local laws and regulations make the protection of worker health and safety a legal requirement as well as an economic necessity. In the final analysis, personal and laboratory safety can be achieved only by informed, responsible individuals. This section summarizes various forms of personal and laboratory safety equipment. Based on this information, knowledgeable choices for appropriate personal protection in the laboratory can be made.

Personal Protective Equipment Eye
Protection | It is easy to take your senses for granted since they function without conscious thought. It's easy to relax your guard in the laboratory environment. After all, for those people not used to wearing glasses, it can be regarded as a burdensome task to wear unattractive, often restrictive eyewear. However, the chemical laboratory is likely to be the most health-threatening place that you can encounter. Splashing chemicals and flying objects are possible at any time in the lab environment. For this reason, eye protection is an important consideration. Protective eyewear for personnel and visitors should be splash proof. They must meet ANSI (American National Standards Institute) specifications. Approved eyewear usually bears an ANSI approval stamp on the lens or eye piece of the eyewear. If you don't have safety glasses, tell your supervisor. They can be purchased from any safety supply company, student supply stores or Chemistry Stores (located in room 0202 of the Chemistry Building, phone (301) 405-1838.) | | Use and
Maintenance |  Eye wear should be as comfortable as possible, fit snugly over the eyes and around the face, and not interfere with the movement of the wearer.  When it is appropriate, signs should be posted outside the door stating that eye protection is required before entering the room.  Appropriate eye protection should be worn when using: * caustics, corrosives, or irritants * glassware under vacuum or pressure (reduced or elevated) * cryogenic materials * flammable materials * radioactive materials * explosives * lasers (special lens protection required) * UV light (special lens protection required) * biohazards Eye protection should also be worn when performing these machine shop operations: * welding * sanding * grinding | * drilling * sawing |
 Eye safety equipment should be capable of being cleaned and disinfected.  Eye protection should always be kept in good condition. | | Corrective
Lenses |  Laboratory workers whose vision requires the use of corrective lenses should wear safety eye protection of one of the following types: * Prescription lens safety splash goggles. * Splash-proof safety eye wear that can be worn over prescription glasses without disturbing the adjustment of the glasses. | | Contact
Lenses |  Contact lenses should not be routinely worn in the laboratory. Laboratory personnel who must wear contact lenses while performing laboratory work should be aware of the following potential hazards: * It may be impossible to remove contacts from the eyes following entry of some chemicals into the eye area. * Contact lenses will interfere with emergency flushing procedures. * Contacts may trap solid materials in the eyes. Use of contact lenses should be considered carefully, with extra consideration given to choosing eye protection that fits snugly over the eyes and around the face. |

Protective Clothing Lab Coat |  The lab coat is designed to protect the clothing and skin from chemicals that may be spilled or splashed. It should always be properly fitted to the wearer and is best if it is knee length. There are several different types of lab coats for different types of protection. * Cotton protects against flying objects, sharp or rough edges and is usually treated with a fire retardant. * Wool protects against splashes of molten materials, small quantities of acid, and small flames. * Synthetic fibers protect against sparks and infrared or ultraviolet radiation. However, synthetic fiber lab coats can increase the severity of some laboratory hazards. For instance, some solvents may dissolve particular classes of synthetic fibers, thereby diminishing the protective ability of the coat. In addition, on contact with flames, some synthetic fibers will melt. This molten material can cause painful skin burns and release irritating fumes. * Aluminized and reflective clothing protect against radiant heat. The construction of the material must also be considered (twill, felt, plain, etc.), as the materials are rated differently by various manufacturers. Lab coats should be made with snaps/fasteners which afford the wearer quick removal in the event of an emergency. | | Aprons |  An apron provides an alternative to the lab coat. It is usually made of plastic or rubber to protect the wearer against corrosive or irritating chemicals. An apron should be worn over garments that cover the arms and body, such as a lab coat. |

Hand
Protection | It is a good idea to always get into the habit of wearing protective gloves in the laboratory. Aside from acting as a shield between hands and hazardous materials, some gloves can also absorb perspiration or protect the hands from heat. Because certain glove types can dissolve in contact with solvents, it is important to take extra care in matching the protective glove with the nature of the job. Before use, check to make sure the gloves (especially latex gloves) are in good condition and free from holes, punctures, and tears. | | Glove Types and Removal |  Gloves should be selected on the basis of the material being handled and the particular hazard involved. Glove manufacturers and the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) accompanying products in use are good sources of specific glove selection information, or contact DES for assistance in selection. * PVC protects against mild corrosives and irritants. * Latex provides light protection against irritants and limited protection against infectious agents. * Natural Rubber protects against mild corrosive material and electric shock. * Neoprene for working with solvents, oils, or mild corrosive material. * Cotton absorbs perspiration, keeps objects clean, provides some limited fire retardant properties. * Zetex® when handling small burning objects. These are a good replacement for asbestos gloves. (Asbestos containing gloves may not be purchased or used in UM labs since asbestos is a known carcinogen. Asbestos gloves currently located in UM laboratories must be disposed through the University's asbestos waste disposal system. If your laboratory currently has asbestos gloves (or products) for disposal, seal them in a plastic bag, label the contents of the bag and contact Facilities Management Work Control ((301) 405-2222) for an asbestos waste pick-up.) When working with extremely corrosive material, wear thick gloves. Take extra precaution in checking for holes, punctures, and tears.  Care should be taken when removing gloves. Peel the glove off the hand, starting at the wrist and working toward the fingers. Keep the working surface of the glove from contacting skin during removal. Contaminated disposable gloves should be discarded in designated containers (e.g., radioactive or biohazardous waste containers).  Wash hands as soon as possible after removing protective gloves. |

Foot
Protection | Foot protection is designed to prevent injury from corrosive chemicals, heavy objects, electrical shock, as well as giving traction on wet floors. If a corrosive chemical or heavy object were to fall on the floor, the most vulnerable portion of the body would be the feet. For this reason, shoes that Completely Cover and Protect the foot are recommended. | | |  Fabric shoes, such as tennis shoes, absorb liquids readily. If chemicals happen to spill on fabric shoes, remove footwear immediately.  When selecting footwear for the lab, choose sturdy shoes that cover the foot. These will provide the best protection.  The following shoe types should not be worn in the laboratory: * sandals * clogs * high heels * shoes that expose the foot in Any Way The following are recommended types of footwear: * Safety Shoes (steel-toed) protect against crushing injuries caused by impact from any object during work activities (e.g., lifting heavy objects, using power tools, etc.). * Treated Shoes, Rubber Boots or Plastic Shoe Covers protect against corrosive chemicals. * Insulated Shoes protect against electric shock. * Rubber Boots with slip resistant outer soles provide traction in wet conditions where the possibility of slipping exists. Safety Shoes, Rubber Boots or Plastic Shoe Covers protect against specific types of chemical contamination and like gloves must be selected to match the current hazard. |

Hearing
Protection | DES will respond to inquiries regarding noise exposure in the work place. Upon request, the staff of DES will conduct environmental noise and/or personal exposure dosimetry. Ear protection should be worn where the noise level is above 85 decibels (dBA). Areas where excessive noise is present should be posted with signs indicating ear protection is required. Ear protectors should be readily available and rated for sufficient noise reduction. Contact DES for assistance in selecting appropriate hearing protection for your situation. | | |  Noise reduction ratings (NRR) for hearing protection products must be listed on hearing packaging. The NRR number is used in context of the following formula: Noise Dose in dBATWA8-(NRR-7) dBA = decibels on an A weighted scale TWA8 = eight hour time weighted average NRR = noise reduction rating.  Types of ear protection include: * Ear plugs provide basic protection to seal the ear against noise. * Ear muffs provide extra protection against noise, and are more comfortable than ear plugs. * Cotton inserts are poor suppressors of noise and should be avoided. |

Head
Protection | Some environments within UM have the potential for falling or flying objects. Appropriate head protection can protect laboratory workers from impacts, penetration by falling or flying objects, electric shock and burns.  Unrestrained long hair can be hazardous. The use of caps, elastic bands or hair nets will prevent the hair from coming in contact with instrument/machinery parts, chemicals or flame-producing sources. |

Respiratory
Protection | Because certain laboratory procedures can produce noxious fumes and contaminants, respiratory protection may be required in your work environment. In fact, lab personnel noting changes in air quality should contact their LS/PI or DES, (301) 405-3960 and express their concerns. When engineering controls cannot successfully minimize or eliminate the potentially harmful fumes, a respiratory protection program should be established. Departments must refer individuals who need respiratory protection to DES for assistance in respirator selection, fit testing and training. A medical examination provided through the University Health Center is also required to assure the potential respirator wearer is physically capable of respirator use. |

Laboratory Safety Equipment Laboratory
Chemical
Fume Hood | Chemical fume hoods capture, contain, and expel emissions generated by hazardous chemicals. In general, it is a good idea to conduct all laboratory chemical experiments in a fume hood. While you may be able to predict the release of undesirable or hazardous effluents in some laboratory operations, "surprises" can always happen. Therefore, the fume hood offers an extra measure of protection. Before use, check to see that your hood has an inspection tag. This will tell you the date of the most recent hood evaluation. If the fume hood in your lab does not appear to be in good working order (a tissue, held inside the fume hood, can indicate if airflow is present), or if you have any questions, call DES. (Note: Do not allow tissues or other material to be pulled into the hood exhaust system as this may damage the unit or affect the air flow.) Certain laboratory procedures may require the use of perchloric acid. The use of this material may cause the formation of explosive perchlorate crystals. Special fume hoods, commonly known as Perchloric Acid Fume Hoods, MUST be used for this purpose. These hoods have self-contained wash-down units to inhibit crystal formation. | | Operation | * All laboratory workers with access to a laboratory chemical fume hood should be familiar with its use. * Maintain the sash at or below the optimum operating height as designated by the label with an arrow. * The optimum condition for general laboratory work in a chemical fume hood is between 80 and 125 fpm face velocity in a well installed unit. Radioactive materials use requires a face velocity of 100 fpm or greater at a minimum sash height of 12 inches. Higher face velocities often produce turbulence inside of the hood sufficient to eject contaminants into the laboratory. * Raise large objects that must be in the hood (i.e., a water bath) to allow airflow beneath and on all sides of the object. * Always work back into the hood, six inches beyond the sash line, keeping the sash line between your body and your work. | | Maintenance | * Keep the inside of the hood clean and uncluttered. * The hood should always be in good condition and capable of routine use. Any hood or component of ventilation not properly functioning must be taken out of service and clearly tagged. * The lab worker should not be able to detect strong odors released from materials in the hood. If odors are detected, check to make sure that the ventilation fan is turned on. If the fume hood is malfunctioning, discontinue work and call Facilities Management Work Control at (301) 405-2222. * An emergency plan should exist in case of hood ventilation malfunction. * All protective clothing should be worn when working with chemicals in the hood. In addition to gloves, safety glasses, and lab coats, a face shield or explosion shield will provide an extra measure of safety from reactive chemicals. * Solid objects or materials should not be allowed to enter the exhaust ducts at the rear of the hood, as they can become lodged in the duct or fan. * Fume hoods should not be used for long-term chemical storage. | | Chemical
Storage
Cabinets | Storage of flammables and corrosives in the lab should be limited to as small a quantity as possible. Flammable materials should be stored in flammable material storage cabinets which meet OSHA 1910.106d and NFPA 30 specifications. These specifications are available from DES. | | Use and
Maintenance | * Chemicals should Never be stored in alphabetical order without consideration for chemical compatibilities. This system may contribute to the probability of incompatible materials being stored next to one another (e.g., butadiene next to bromine or chlorine). Incompatible reagents should not be stored next to each other. (See the chemical incompatibility chart in the appendices of this manual.) * Storage outside of the cabinet should be limited to materials used in the current process. * The vent cap on chemical storage cabinets should not be removed unless the cabinet is attached to an approved ventilation system. * If a cabinet is connected to a ventilation system, the connection must either have a thermally actuated damper or sufficient insulation on the vent piping to avoid compromising the fire protection ability of the cabinet. * Glass containers should be stored on the bottom shelf of storage cabinets. | | Types of
Cabinets | * Flammable liquid cabinets are designed for storage of flammable or combustible liquids. * Acid/corrosive cabinets are designed for corrosion resistance. * Bulk storage cabinets can be used for storage of flammable and corrosive liquids outside the laboratory setting. | | Individual
Storage
Containers | Selecting the best means of storage for chemical reagents will, to a great extent, depend on that reagent's compatibility with the container. | | | * A safety can is an approved container of no more than five gallons (19 liters) capacity. It has a spring-closing lid and spout cover, and is designed to safely relieve pressure buildup within the container. * Vent caps may be purchased for original manufacturers' glass containers to help minimize explosion hazards. | | Refrigerators | While domestic refrigeration units are appropriate for keeping foods cold, they are not designed to meet the special hazards presented by flammable materials. Therefore, laboratory refrigerators should be carefully selected for specific chemical storage needs. To prevent potential safety hazards, the length of storage of any material should be kept to a minimum. In addition, refrigerators should be periodically inspected. Refrigerators used to house flammable materials must be approved for such use by FM® (Factory Mutual) or UL® (Underwriters Laboratory). | | Use and
Maintenance | * Each refrigerator, freezer or other cooling unit should be prominently labeled with appropriate hazard signs to indicate whether it is suitable for storing hazardous chemicals. Label chemical hazard refrigerators with the sign "For Chemical Storage Only. No Food or Drink Allowed." * If radioactive materials are to be stored, a refrigerator must be clearly labeled "Caution, Radioactive Material. No Food or Beverages May Be Stored in This Unit." * The containers placed in the refrigerator should be completely sealed or capped, securely placed, and labeled. Avoid capping materials with aluminum foil, parafilm, corks, and glass stoppers. * Refrigerators should be frost free to prevent water drainage. | | Types of
Refrigerators | * Because ignitable vapors can build up in refrigerators, it is important to store flammable and combustible materials in specially-designed units. These refrigerators will have self-contained electrical elements to avoid spark-induced explosions. * Explosion-proof or intrinsically safe refrigerators are specifically designed for hazardous environments, featuring enclosed motors to eliminate sparking and bear a FM or UL explosion-proof label. * Highly volatile flammable and combustible substances that require refrigeration may be stored only in explosion-proof refrigerators especially designed for such use. Such refrigerators must meet the requirements for Class 1 Division 1 Electrical Safety Code (NPFA 70 and NFPA 45) and require direct wiring to the power source via a metal conduit. The same storage requirements apply to any solution or specimen that may release flammable fumes (e.g., the ether-impregnated fur of a dead rat has been known to cause an explosion in a refrigerator). | | Eyewash
Stations | Eyewash stations provide an effective means of treatment when chemicals come in contact with the eyes. Eyewash stations should be readily available and accessible to all laboratory personnel. | | | * The eyewash facility should be clearly marked and no more than 100 feet, or 10 seconds, away from every lab work station. Laboratory workers should be able to locate the nearest eye wash facility with their eyes closed (eye injuries may involve temporary blindness). * An eye injury usually accompanies a skin injury. For this reason, eye wash stations should be located near the safety shower and/or drench hose so that eyes and body can be washed. | | Use and
Maintenance | * Water/eye solutions should not be directly aimed onto the eyeball, but rather, aimed at the base of the nose. This increases the chance of effectively rinsing the eyes free of chemicals (harsh streams of water may drive particles further into the eyes). * Eyelids may have to be forcibly opened to attempt eye rinse. * Flood eyes and eyelids with water/eye solution for a minimum of 15 minutes. * Remove contact lenses as soon as possible to rinse eyes of any harmful chemicals. * Eye wash stations should be drained and tested weekly by laboratory personnel and inspected every six months. | | Types of
Eye Wash
Stations | * Gravity Feed - Self Contained provides the laboratory worker with emergency eye wash treatment in areas inaccessible to plumbing. * Faucet-mounted (pin or push plate activators) provides continuous water flow while freeing hands to open eyelids. It turns a standard faucet into a practical emergency eye wash station. * Laboratory Bench sprays with squeeze handles can be installed through the bench top for instant availability, but does not satisfy OSHA requirements as an accessible eyewash. * Swivel Eye Wash mounts on lab bench or counter top adjacent to a sink. It swivels 90 over the sink for use, or out of the way for storage. * Bowl-mounted (pin, push plate or foot pedal activators) provides continuous water flow through a free-standing plumbed unit. The bowl may be directed to a floor drain or connected directly to a sewer connection for easy testing and use. | | Safety
Showers | Safety showers provide an effective means of treatment in the event that chemicals are spilled or splashed onto the skin or clothing. Safety shower facilities should be installed wherever corrosive chemicals are used (e.g. acids or alkalis) and must be readily available to all personnel. | | Use and
Maintenance | * Safety showers should be in a clearly marked location. The facility should be no more than 100 feet, or 10 seconds, away from every lab work bench. * Laboratory workers should be able to locate the shower(s) with their eyes closed (emergency situations may leave victims temporarily blind). * Safety showers are operated by grasping a ring chain or triangular rod. * The pull mechanism is designed for people of most heights but may require a modification for wheelchair access. It should always be accessible and hang freely. * Safety showers should supply a continuous stream of water to cover the entire body. * Individuals should remove contaminated clothing, including shoes and jewelry, while under an operating shower. * Safety showers should be located away from electrical panels or outlets. * If at all possible, safety shower facilities should be installed near appropriate drainage systems. | | Types of
Safety
Showers | * Ceiling/Wall Emergency Shower provides a continuous water flow and mounts directly to overhead vertical pipes or horizontal wall pipes. * Floor-Mounted Emergency Combination eye wash/face and body wash mounts directly to horizontal pipes. * Deck-Mounted Drench Hose is a hand operated unit intended to augment a safety shower for quick spot-washing of injuries. | | Fire Safety Equipment | Types of
Equipment | * Fire Alarms are designed so that all endangered laboratory personnel and building occupants are alerted by an audible warning (in many buildings there is also visual warning). Fire alarm systems are not monitored at a remote location. Fire alarm activations must be reported to Emergency Assistance (911) from a safe location. * All employees/students should become familiar with the Exact Location of the fire alarm pull stations nearest to their laboratory. * Sprinkler systems, smoke detectors and heat detectors may automatically activate the fire alarm. (This should not be considered a substitute for manual fire alarm activation.) * Fire Extinguishers are spaced and located as required by current fire codes and standards. Multipurpose fire extinguishers can be found in hallways and near exits in most laboratories. Additional or redundant extinguishers will only be provided at a charge to the requestor (Note: Special purpose fire extinguishers are provided where necessary). * Only use a fire extinguisher if the fire is very small and you know how to use the extinguisher safely. If you can't put out the fire, leave immediately. Make sure the fire * * department is called even if you think the fire is out. * In laboratories, fire extinguishers should be securely located on the wall near an exit. The lab occupant should be aware of the condition of the fire extinguishers by observing them for broken seals, damages, low gauge pressure, or improper mounting. * DES Fire Protection performs annual maintenance on all fire extinguishers. The last month and year that maintenance was performed is indicated on a tag or sticker on the extinguisher. * Occupants of labs should visually inspect lab fire extinguishers at least monthly. Units that are missing, have broken seals, low pressure or visible damage should be reported to DES Fire Protection immediately for replacement. * For fire extinguisher service, requests, training, or any questions call DES Fire Protection at (301) 405-3960. * Sprinklers are designed to enhance life safety by controlling a fire until the fire department arrives or, in many cases, completely extinguishes a fire. * Sprinklers are automatically activated, and laboratory workers should not attempt to shut off or tamper with the system. * Items in the laboratory must be stored at least 18 inches below the sprinklers. * Items (e.g., wiring or tubing, etc.) must not hang from the sprinklers or sprinkler pipes. * Sprinklers must not be painted or otherwise obstructed. * Intense heat should not be used near sprinklers. * If there are any questions on fire safety equipment call DES Fire Protection at (301) 405-3960. Call Work Control Center, (301) 405-2222, to report damage to fire alarm or sprinkler systems. |
Laboratory Equipment Safety Glassware | Accidents involving glassware are a leading cause of laboratory injuries. These can be avoided by following a few simple procedures. In general, be certain that you have received proper instructions before you use glass equipment designed for specialized tasks that involve unusual risks or potential injury. Listed below are some safety rules. | | Use and
Maintenance | * Handle and store glassware carefully so as not to damage it or yourself. * Properly discard or repair damaged items. * When inserting glass tubing into rubber stoppers, corks or when placing rubber tubing on glass hose connections: * protect hands with a heavy glove or towel * lubricate tubing or stopper with water or glycerol and be sure that the ends of the glass tubing are fire-polished * hold hands close together to limit movement of glass should fracture occur * substitute plastic or metal connections for glass ones whenever possible to decrease the risk of injury * use glassware designed for vacuum work for that purpose * when dealing with broken glass * wear hand protection when picking up the pieces * use a broom to sweep small pieces into a dustpan * package it in a rigid container (i.e. corrugated cardboard box) and seal to protect personnel from injury. * Never attempt glass-blowing operations without proper facilities. | | Heating
Devices | Electrical devices that supply heat for reactions or separations are commonly used in laboratories. Electrically heated devices include: * hotplates; * hot-tube furnaces; * heating mantles; * hot-air guns; | * oil baths; * ovens * air baths; |
Improper use could result in fire or burns to the user. | | Use and
Maintenance | * If baths are required to be activated when not attended, they should be equipped with timers to turn them on and off at suitable hours and, if possible, a thermostat to turn off power if the unit overheats. * Flammable or combustible solvents should never be used in a heated bath unless housed in a chemical fume hood. * Before using any heating device: * check to see if the unit has an automatic shutoff in case of overheating; * note the condition of electrical cords and have them replaced as required; * make sure the apparatus has been maintained as required by the manufacturer; * make sure the device maintains a Underwriters' Laboratories (UL®) or Factory Mutual Engineering Division of Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies (FM®) listing; * check to see that all heating units in use without automatic shut-off have been turned off before leaving an area for any extended period of time. | |

Baking Tools
If you like to cook, it is easy to be seduced by all kinds of baking tools, many of which you may never end up using. The kitchen tools and utensils needed for making cookies is minimal. So keep this in mind when you go shopping for cookie-making equipment.

You probably have most of the necessary equipment to bake many different varieties of cookies. However, if you would like to get into making more than just the simple recipes, there are additional baking tools and small appliances that would be useful to have.

You won't need every item listed below. The best rule is to always read through the recipe you plan on making well ahead of time to be sure that you have all of the equipment and ingredients you will need.

Baking Sheets

You should have a minimum of two baking sheets as part of your baking tools. If you are planning to do a lot of cookie baking we recommend that you have at least four heavy-duty flat aluminum baking sheets. Since only one or two can be in the oven at the same time, having four will allow you to have two in the oven and two out of the oven to cool and then refill. They come in different sizes. You should choose the size that fits well in your oven. The 17 x 14 inch size is right for most home ovens.
Shiny aluminum pans work best for cookies. Pans with a dark surface absorb more heat which can cook the bottoms of the cookies faster than the tops.

Baking or Jelly Roll Pans

Bar cookies are mostly baked in 13x9x2-inch metal pans or glass baking dishes. If you are going to use the glass baking dish, you will need to adjust your oven temperature. Bar cookies will usually cook in metal pans at 350 degrees. You will need to bring the temperature down to 325 degrees when using glass.

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Cookie Cutters

Made of steel, copper or plastic. Cookie cutters are available in a variety of shapes and sizes, to cut cookie dough into specific shapes.

Cookie Scoop

Next to the baking sheets, our cookie scoop is one of our most used baking tools. It looks like a small ice cream scoop. It is used to scoop out equal amounts of cookie dough for making drop cookies. Scoops come in different sizes and because not all manufacturers sizes are the same, be sure to look at the volume of the scoop before purchasing. 1 1/2 – 2 Tablespoon sizes are good for drop cookies.

Cookie Press

A cookie press or cookie gun is a hollow cylinder with a plunger that pushes dough through a decorative tip at the end of the tube. If you plan on making Spritz cookies then you will need one of these as part of your baking tools.

Double Boiler

A Double Boiler consists of two pans that nest together. The top pan hold the food to be melted (like chocolate), the bottom pan holds and inch or two of water, which is heated to a simmer. The heat from the boiling water gently melts the chocolate in the upper pan.

Electric Hand Mixer

It is not absolutely necessary to go out and buy a Stand Mixer if you don't have one. You should have at least an electric hand mixer in your collection of baking tools. It will take more time but it will do the job. Choose one that has a powerful motor and feels good in your hands. Most of the weight should be up front over the beaters.

Stand Mixer

A stand mixer is by far the easiest to use. If you plan on baking lots of goodies throughout the year, a stand mixer would be a wise investment. Stick with the brand names. Nothing is worse than an under-powered mixer. Kitchen Aid and Hamilton Beach make good ones. You should also have at least three attachments. A Whisk, Dough Hook and Paddle.

Food Processor

Here is another handy device to have. A food processor makes quick work of chopping, mincing and grinding. You don't have to go out and buy the big super deluxe model. A basic model will do for most jobs.

Grater

A common four sided grater will perform most of the grating and shredding tasks needed for making cookies. Stick with the stainless steel model. It won't rust. We have had ours for 25 years.

Measuring Equipment

Your baking tools should have a minimum of: * 1 quart and 1 cup measuring glasses made of heat resistant glass. * A set of nested metal measuring cups for the dry ingredients. Starting at 1 cup and going down to 1/4 cup. * A set of metal measuring spoons to measure smaller amounts of both dry and liquid ingredients.

Metal Cooling Racks

Metal cooling racks are a grid of wires that stand on short legs. Their function is to let air circulate underneath and around the cookies to help them cool without getting soggy. You will need enough rack space to cool two baking sheets worth of cookies at a time. A 12x18 Rack is sufficient for this purpose. If counter space is a problem, you can purchase stackable cooling racks like the one in the photo.

Mixing Bowls

A good set of different sized mixing bowls should be part of your baking tools. The best mixing bowls are made of Ceramic or stainless steel. Look for deep bowls with high sides. Stainless steel bowls are good for making your own Double Boiler. Nested bowls will take up less room in your cabinets. We don't recommend plastic bowls since they are porous and can retain oils and odors that can transfer to other ingredients.

Parchment Paper

This is used for lining baking pans to provide a non-stick surface. It comes available in rolls.

Pastry Bag

Pastry Bags are used for decorating cakes and cookies with icing. There are three types of pastry bags, reusable, disposable and parchment cones. They come in various sizes and can be made of a variety of materials. Decorating Tubes are the tips that fit on the bottom of reusable or disposable pastry bags. They come in different tip designs which produce different decorations when you squeeze the filling through them, called piping.

Pastry Brush

This is a small flat brush from 1/2 to 2 inches wide which is used to apply egg wash or glaze to cookies.

Rolling Pin

Rolling pins are available in a wide range of sizes and materials. We prefer to have a wooden or marble roller. If you go with wood, wash it by hand with soapy water and then dry it immediately so that it doesn't dry out or warp.

Sifter

A sifter is used to aerate and remove lumps from flour and other dry ingredients. Turning the handle pushes the ingredients through a fine metal mesh giving it a uniform consistency.

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Silicone Baking Mats

Sold under the brand names Silpat and Exopat, these flexible sheets of nonstick silicone are strong enough to withstand very high heat. They are designed to replace Parchment Paper. If you are going to do a lot of baking, it would be worth buying a couple of these mats. They cost about $20.00 a piece.

Spatulas

A narrow metal spatula is useful for leveling off dry ingredients from measuring cups.
A wide metal spatula which you would normally use for flipping pancakes is ideal for getting cookies off of the baking sheet. Rubber spatulas are excellent for getting all of the ingredients off of the sides of your bowl.

Oven Thermometer

An accurate oven thermometer is a good thing to have. Some ovens, new or old, can have inaccurate settings. Use an oven thermometer every time you bake.

Timer

A timer is essential to baking cookies and should be part of your baking tools. If you don't have a timer built into your oven, you can pick one up at just about any store that has cooking supplies.

Whisks

Whisks are used for whipping ingredients that need a lot of air incorporated into it and for folding ingredients into delicate mixtures. It is a good idea to have a few whisks of different sizes for cookie baking.

Zester

This tool consists of a handle with a blade with sharp-edged holes at its end. It is used to remove the zest from citrus. Baking Rack | A metal rack usually placed in a shallow roasting pan. Used to support and elevate food items, during roasting: | | * Prevents roasts from touching the bottom of the pan * Allows the air to circulate underneath the food * It prevents foods from cooking in their fats; a wise choice for those who wish to lower their fat intake | | Blender | A tall and narrow container with small detachable blades. | | * Used to liquify foods quickly: e.g., sauces, soups, etc. * Not recommended for mashing starch items: e.g., cooked potatoes, carrots, etc. | back to top | Casserole Baking Dish | A baking dish in which you can cook, serve and/or freeze foods. | | * These are made of either clay, ceramic, glass or a combination; these are sold separately or in a set of various sizes, with or without matching lids, plain or with decorative patterns * Avoid drastic temperature changes, e.g.: if going from the freezer to the oven or oven to refrigerator, always allow the cold dish to reach room temperature, before heating it up; otherwise, the dish (container) will crack or break | | Colander | Metal or plastic bowl with 1/8 inch holes pressed through out it. | | * Used for draining liquids from solids: e.g., pasta, rice, vegetables, etc. | | | | Cookie Sheet | These range in size and are usually made of metal or a combination of metals, and have only one edge to them, or all four as a jelly roll pan: available with or without a nonstick coating. | | * Specifically made for baking cookies and similar items * Designed to allow heat to circulate freely around baked goods | | | back to top | Cutting Surface | A hard surface on which you place foods to be cut. | | * These are made of plastic, wood and even glass, and are available in a variety of sizes * Plastic ones are easy to maintain, since these won't splinter or shatter, unlike the wooden or glass types | | Deep Fryer | Electrical: a small appliance with a metal basket. | | * Used to deep fry food in large amounts of fat (oil, shortening, etc.) * Conventional: a regular pot with a fitting metal basket that you use on a stove top * Used to deep fry food in large amounts of fat (oil, shortening, lard, etc.) | back to top |

Degreasing Cup | Made of clear plastic and looks similar to a tea pot. | | * Used to separate pan drippings' juices from fat | | | | Electric Mixer | A small appliance that ranges in size, speed settings and comes freestanding or mounted on a base. | | * Used to mix foods that require time and endurance: whipping cream, whipping egg whites, mixing batter, etc. | back to top | Foil Paper | Thin sheets of aluminum. | | * Used to protect food(s) from burning or cooking to quickly * It has a dull side that absorbs heat and a shiny side that reflects heat * See also: Plastic Wrap, Foil, Wax and Parchment Paper | back to top | Food Mill | A hand cranking tool that pushes cooked foods (vegetables or fruits) through small holes. | | * Used to break foods down to a smooth consistency without activating their gluten; gluten can produce a sticky and gooey mixture | | Food Processor | An electrical appliance with detachable blades and accessories. Very speedy and useful when chopping foods, but not suitable for liquids. | | Juicer | A beveled cone made of plastic, glass or wood. | | * Used to break up food's fibres (citrus fruits: lemon, orange, lime, etc.), thus releasing their juices | | | |

Knives - Serrated | A knife with multiple tiny curved teeth that run along it. | | * A narrow serrated is used to slice cooked meats (a single bladed knife can also be substituted) * A wide is used to cut porous foods such as: breads, cakes, pastries, etc. * Work knife in a short sawing motion for best results | | | back to top | Knives - Single Bladed | A knife with one long and wide (or thin), sharp blade. | | * Used for cutting solid foods: fruits, vegetables, meat, chicken, etc. (a narrow serrated knife can also be substituted) * Work knife in one direction for best results; a sawing motion will tear apart cooked foods (roasts, pasta dishes, pizza, etc.) | | Ladles & Large Spoons | These can be made of wood, plastic or metal. |

| * Large spoon (wooden): flat shaped; used for stirring or turning foods * Slotted spoon: flat with holes pressed through it; used for straining or skimming food particles or items from liquids * Soup ladle: cup shaped; used for transferring liquids | | | | | | | | | back to top | Masher | Similar to a ladle, but this one has a grid and openings to it. | | * Used to break up solid foods: boiled fruits or vegetables | | | | | |

Measuring Cups - Glass | These come in 1, 2, 4 and 8 cup capacities. | | * Used for measuring liquid ingredients (milk, water, etc.) * Place on a levelled surface and check at eye level for accurate measuring * It's a good investment to have the 1 and 4 cup measuring cups * The glass type are usually heat resistant and their markings don't rub off as easily as the plastic ones | | | back to top | Measuring Cups - Metal | These come in a set of 1/4, 1/3, 1/2 and 1 cup increments. | | * Used for measuring dry ingredients (flour, sugar, etc.) * Scoop up ingredient and run a straight knife across rim to level off excess ingredient * Wash in hot soapy water, and rinse with hot water, then dry immediately to avoid rusting | | Meat Thermometer | A short metal probe with a gauge, which is inserted into food and instantly indicates the food's internal temperature. | | * This tool is used to determine a food's (roast, bread, etc.) doneness by registering its internal temperature * The most accurate way to determine if a food is cooked | | Pastry Brush | Made of wood or plastic, with real or artifical hair. | | * Used to brush sauce onto food, glazes on desserts, greasing cake pans, etc. * Select brushes made with natural hairs rather than synthetic fibres, since the synthetic ones don't absorb liquid as well as natural ones | back to top | Pastrybag & Accessories | A coned shaped bag (vinyl, nylon or plastic coated cotton), about 2 feet long with a large and small opening. |

| * Accessories: star, cone, flat, curved, three hole and slanted tips, which range in size and diameter * Used to: pipe cream or mixtures, fill pasta or baked goods (eclairs), etc | | | | | | Potato Ricer | A large metal tool, similar to a garlic press, but larger. | | * Used to crush cooked fruits or vegetables; you need physical strength to use it | | | |

Pots | A metal (or combinations of metals) cooking container. | | * Used to cook foods in, on a stove top * Good ones are heavy in weight, with thick bottoms, that include copper inserts | back to top | Roasting Pan | A wide metal pan used to roast foods in the oven. | | * Select those made of thick metal that won't warp during roasting or lifting | | Rubber Scraper | A wooden handle with a flat and narrow rubber tip. | | * An indispensable utensil that is used to scrape mixtures from bowls, pots and other utensils and equipment * Select one with a wooden handle and soft rubber scraper, instead of the one made entirely of plastic; plastic ones aren't as flexible and ruin easily * Avoid using it to scrape foods with high amounts of food colouring, such as: tomato paste, catsup, etc.; they stain easily, and household bleach can only remove stains to a certain degree | back to top | Scooper | A utensil similar to a mash potato scooper, but smaller; great for consisent sized cookies. | | Sieve | A circular utensil with a half dome mesh weaving, ranging from fine to loose. | | * Used to strain food particles from liquids and sauces * Wash well with hot soapy water, then immediately dry well to avoid rusting * Have two of them on hand: one for liquids, which can be washed and dried well, and an other for dry items (sugar, flour, etc.), which needn't be washed, just tapped and brushed with a dry towel | | Teaspoons & Tablespoons | A set of individual plastic or metal utensils, ranging in increments of: 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1 teaspoon and 1, 1-1/2 tablespoons. | | * Used to measure liquid or dry ingredients * These are more accurate than cutlery teaspoons and tablespoons, since cutlery spoons vary from one manufacturer to an other * Wash and dry well to prevent plastic ones from discoloring and metal ones from rusting | | | back to top | Tongs | Metal pinching tools used to grab foods without using your hands or fingers. | | Whisks | Regular: A long utensil with a set of slim stainless steel wires that are gathered at one end and looped at the other. | | * Used to hand beat, incorporate, whisk, blend, and stir | | Balloon: Same as above, except shorter and wider | | * Used to incorporate air into creams, fillings, mixtures, etc. | | http://www.decuisine.co.uk/cookshop/kitchen_tools_gadgets/cooking_utensils_tools.html??id=d8b21a120ec6cdcb3b398a9d105f02b5.1286256619&&referal=/cookshop/kitchen_tools_gadgets/ Kitchen Equipment
Many of us have to take our kitchens as we find them, and have no say as to the relative positions of the permanent fixtures. We can, however, see that the utensils and equipment are as they should be. More and more so-called "labor-saving devices" are to be had until it is easy to conceive of the kitchen in the future in which electricity will not only be the means of light and heat, but will also be the motive force for nearly everything, not only for dishwashers, but also for bread-mixers, ice-cream freezers, egg-beaters, etc. We are so accustomed to the Dover egg-beater, the Universal bread-mixer, the meatchopper, that we can hardly think of them as being labor-saving devices; yet a woman cooking for a good-sized family would not be without them. The efficient home-maker should be constantly on the watch for new devices that may really be a means of saving time and labor for her.
The ideal system for cooking, whether it be coal, gas, or electricity, is the one which gives the largest possible percentage of its heat for the cooking process itself without waste into the room, and at the same time puts a definite amount of heat under quick control with a great saving of fuel and labor in operating. Measured by this standard, the coal range is not ideal, since it loses much heat into the room, so much in fact that it is customary not to provide any other means of heating the kitchen where there is a coal range. It is also very slow to control, though many like the results obtained, especially from the oven in baking. It also has the advantage over a gas stove of constant low heat for soups, stews, and other long-process cookery. It is dirty to care for, however, and requires much energy in carrying coal and ashes. On the other hand, both gas stoves and electric ones have the advantage of being easy to control and to keep clean. When used in connection with a fireless cooker separately or as a part of the stove itself, either is far preferable to a coal or wood range for convenience and economy. Gas or electric stoves combined with fireless cookers can be found on the market nowadays. Whatever variety of stove is used, it must be thoroughly understood and kept in good order. A coal stove should be taken apart and the drafts and dampers studied carefully, so that the effect of each is well known. The underlying principle of all stoves is the same; that is, a fire to burn well must have plenty of air, as all burning is combustion, or the uniting of a substance with the oxygen of the air. In lighting a fire in the stove we empty the grate completely. Then we place the most inflammable material at the bottom - paper, excelsior, or shavings. The less easily ignited comes next - chips or kindling - and the hardest of all on top - coal or large pieces of wood. Before applying a match, we make sure that the drafts are correct. The one in the chimney should be wide open; the slide below the fire-bed should be open and the one above it closed; for the air must come through the fire from below and be able to pass unblocked straight up the chimney. When the fire is burning well, it may be checked by closing the chimney damper all or part way, and also the slide below the fire-bed. Care must always be taken to prevent so great a flow of cold air against the bottom of the fire as will check its combustion. If the oven is to be used, the oven damper must be closed, which forces the hot air to pass around the oven box before going up the chimney. To check the fire completely, the slide above the fire-bed should be opened to enable the cold air to blow in on top of the coals.
Labor-saving devices
Stoves
Care of stoves
No fuel should come above the bricks in the fire-box, and never should the fire be allowed to get so hot as to make the top of the stove red, as that warps the iron.
The same principle of combustion is found in a gas stove, the air uniting at the point of burning with the gas coming through the pipe. The flame of a gas stove should be blue with a light-blue center. If it burns with a yellow flame, it is not adjusted correctly and the gas company should be notified. The oven doors of a gas stove should always be left open while it is being lighted until all the burners have caught, in order to prevent a pocket of unburned gas from collecting in the oven.
Stoves of all types must be kept clean. They should be rubbed often with paper, and anything spilt in the oven should be scraped up carefully. Gas-burners as well as the tops of a gas stove can be removed and washed thoroughly at the sink with boiling water and washing-soda. Blacking makes stoves look better and preserves the iron.
The principle of a refrigerator is to preserve food through low temperature obtained by the melting of ice. In order to melt, ice must absorb heat, and in a refrigerator it draws this heat from the other compartments. Hence a perfect refrigerator should be so built that it cannot absorb heat from outside and has perfect circulation of air inside. In buying a refrigerator, much must be left to the honesty of the dealer so far as the outside structure is concerned; but the purchaser can see for herself if there is allowance for good circulation inside and if it can be kept clean easily. Every refrigerator should be so built as to have a space between each compartment, so that the warm air rising from the food may pass over the ice at the top and the cold air from the ice-chamber may go down to the compartment below.
Refrigerators
A white lining, either tile or enamel, is attractive and dirt is easily seen; but if it cracks or chips easily it is unsatisfactory. Shelves should be removable, and if made of wire permit freer circulation of air than if of glass or slate. If the floor of the refrigerator is flush with the door, it can be more easily washed than if it drops below, though in this case the door must shut very tightly.
It is extremely important that a refrigerator should be kept especially clean. Anything spilled must be wiped up at once, and the whole inside given a thorough washing with soda and water at least once a week. Hot water should be poured down the waste pipe and a long wire with brush end may be used to clean the pipe. If it is connected directly with the sewer, it should have a trap.
Do not forget to wash the inside of the doors when washing the inside of the refrigerator.
If it is possible to have a word about the sink when it is put in, be sure to have it set up high enough for comfort; also to see that it is large enough to hold two dishpans comfortably, and that it has a good-sized draining-board on each side if possible. Porcelain sinks require a good deal of effort to keep them clean, especially if strong soap-powders have injured the finish; enamel on iron is apt to chip. Soapstone is very satisfactory and can be kept in good condition by frequent scrubbing with soap and a short-bristled brush.
Sink
Every housekeeper has her own ideas on the subject of utensils, her favorite type of material and her favorite shape and style. Aluminum is expensive to begin with, but lasts a.long time if it is of the best grade and gives very satisfactory service. Where the water is hard, it discolors easily and requires considerable effort to keep it bright. The heavy gray enamel-ware also gives good service and is easy to clean if not abused. As enamel-ware may be unsafe if the enamel has been chipped off, the base metal not being prepared to resist acids in the food, it is well to buy a good quality to begin with and to take good care of it.
The kitchen is more than a workshop. It is a laboratory where food is prepared for family consumption. As such, absolute cleanliness is of first importance with everything pertaining to its preparation. All food delivered to the house should come wrapped up. No town should permit flesh products to be carried through its streets uncovered, or to be hung outside stores for display. Fruit and vegetables should be very carefully washed before serving, as they have been exposed to the dirt of the street as well as to much handling. Dry groceries can be kept in glass or enamel jars to prevent dust falling in them, and should never be left in paper bags or opened car-tons.
Cooked food should be carefully covered and cooled before putting into the refrigerator. It should be removed from the dining-room china or glass and put onto plates kept for that purpose. No food, no matter how small a quantity, should be thrown away. Freshly cooked breadstuffs should be cooled on an open rack before putting away in a well-aired and sunned bread-box.
Utensils
Cleanliness essential
Plates should be scraped into a drainer in the sink. Very greasy ones could be wiped off with soft paper which is then burnt. All dishes are then piled on the left side of the sink ready for washing. Rinse the milk and egg glasses with cold water. Use two dishpans, one containing very hot soapy water, and the other very hot clear water for rinsing. Wash glassware first, then silver, then the cleanest of the china, leaving the dinner plates and platter until last. Have a wire or wooden drainer to the right of the rinsing-pan, and as the dishes are rinsed stand them in the drainer. If the water is very hot, they will need practically no drying. If they are washed and put in the drainer in the reverse order from which they can be stacked when dry, it saves handling them twice; that is, if the dinner plates are washed last, they are dried first and can be at the bottom of the pile when ready to put away.
Three towels should be used for wiping dishes and should be kept for their separate uses: a soft linen towel for glass and silver; a heavier linen for china; and a heavy crash one for pots and pans. If towels are used carefully and always rinsed out after each dish-washing, they will last a long time. They should also be given a thorough boiling at least once a week.
No matter how much care the worker in the kitchen takes with the food and the utensils, it is all of no avail if she herself is not immaculate in her person and her habits. The kitchen is no place in which to wear a dress too old and too soiled to be worn any longer in the parlor; but it demands a suitable uniform of its own. The dress worn here should be a cotton one, easily laundered, and so made as to be perfectly comfortable, with short sleeves, low collar, short skirt, and plenty of room. The hair should be kept very neat and should be confined if possible by a net or close-fitting cap.
Dishwashing
It is most essential that the hands and finger-nails should be kept with the utmost care, frequently washed, and always after coming from the toilet. Even then the hands should be kept out of food just as much as possible. It is not necessary to use the hands in order to get good results, as many old-fashioned cooks will tell you. Cake and baking-powder biscuit can both be made very satisfactorily without putting the hands in the mixture at all, and if the bread-mixer is used for making bread, that process too may be carried on without handling the dough. A palette knife (and not the finger) should be used for scraping out the mixing-bowl, and never should food be tasted from the stirring-spoon. A tasting-spoon may be kept for the purpose and not put into the whole mass, but some dipped out onto it with the stirring-spoon.
This standard of cleanliness is easily achieved and should be accepted as attainable.
Personal cleanliness
Kitchen Utensils - Storage And Caring
Kitchen utensils are necessary items for the home. They are needed for cooking, cutting, preparing and eating. They are used hundreds of times during their lifetime, assuming they are worth it. And, they will touch most of your food. It is necessary, then, to properly care for and maintain them so that you can count on them when you need them.
Kitchen utensils are used for serving, preparing and eating food. Because of that, you probably have a large drawer full of them. There are those that are slotted. There are those for soups and sauces. There are those for cutting, others for mashing and still others for peeling. There are, without a doubt, many kitchen utensils at your disposal.
Storing Them
First and foremost, in order to protect your kitchen utensils, you'll need to carefully store them. To do that, you'll need to invest in one of several methods. If you store the kitchen utensils in a drawer, they are likely to break or become dull. Instead, do one of these options for your kitchen utensils.
- On-the-counter storage allows for you to store your kitchen utensils only an arms reach from your cook top. This allows you to keep them separated, organized and in easy reach. You wont have to dig through the drawer, cutting your finger in the process to find the one kitchen utensil that you need.
- Drawer organizers can also be used to house kitchen utensils of all sizes and styles. These will not only help you to organize them so that you can easily find the right ones, but it will help them to keep from being damaged or bent. Drawer organizers are a must for kitchen utensils for eating with.
- For knives, you'll want to take extra precautions. You'll want to keep them stored safely in a knife block or in a specifically designed drawer with slots. This will keep them sharp and free from chips. Also, it will keep you hands from being hurt too.
Cleaning Them
Whenever you use your kitchen utensils, make sure to properly wash them with soap. Check to make sure that they are dishwasher safe if you plan to wash them that way. Also, make sure that your kitchen utensils are kept dry so that they do not rust and they will last you a long time.
Just a few thoughts as you are outfitting your kitchen. There are many more kitchen articles in our kitchen section. There is more specific information in the links at the beginning of this article. They can guide you where you need to go.

How to Care for Your Wooden Kitchen Utensils
By Donna Piko-Jones, eHow Member
I want to do this! What's This?

Care for Your Wooden Kitchen Utensils all pics from photobucket.com
User-Submitted Article
For many years I have been a collector of wooden kitchen items. Since wood was a living being, I believe it holds a cellular memory within it. Because of this my collection is treasured by me. I have spoons from my grandmother and mother. I have a rolling pin of my mother's as well as her cutting board. One of my most prized possessions however is a hand carved spoon that I picked up in an Amish town at a flea market. When I use these kitchen utensils I love to think of all of the women's hands that held them before me and how they must have felt as they prepared meals for their families.
Difficulty: Moderately Easy
Instructions
Things You'll Need: * wooden utensils (spoons, rolling pins, cutting boards, ladles, bowls, etc) * cookie sheets * soft cloth * oven * mineral oil 1. 1
Preheat your oven to the lowest setting possible. 2. 2
Gather all of your materials in one place. I love to do this in the living room in the evening while watching tv. 3. 3

Using your soft cloth begin to rub each utensil generously with the mineral oil. This is going to save the wood from drying out and cracking. This can be found in the laxative section of any pharmacy. 4. 4
As you finish oiling each piece, place it on the cookie sheet. 5. 5
When all pieces are oiled, place the cookie sheet in the preheated oven for about half an hour. 6. 6
Turn oven off. 7. 7
Allow wooden objects to remain in oven until it cools down. Since I do mine in the evening, I let mine stay there overnight. 8. 8
Remove utensils from oven and wipe each one clean.
You have now saved your treasures from cracking, splintering, and drying out! They are going to be very happy and serve you well. 9. 9
You should repeat this process about twice a year. I do it at the same time I season my iron skillets. - Should that be another article?

Read more: How to Care for Your Wooden Kitchen Utensils | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4420826_care-wooden-kitchen-utensils.html#ixzz11ScW0WT6
The Care Of Kitchen Utensils
A complete list of kitchen utensils is not given in this work, as the variety and number needed will be largely determined by circumstances. There are several utensils, which are not perhaps in general use, which lessen the labor of cooking, and add much to the attractiveness of food prepared by their aid.
There is nothing that makes so much difference between ordinary and delicate cooking as a set of strainers. There should be one of very fine wire for sifting soda, spices, etc., and for straining custards and jellies; others with meshes from one sixteenth to one eighth of an inch in diameter; also a squash strainer and a colander. Extension wire strainers are very convenient. Keep also a supply of strainer cloths, made from coarse crash or cheese cloth, and fine napkin linen.
A set of oval tin moulds, a melon mould, and one or two fancy moulds are convenient for entrees, puddings, and jellies.
Other useful articles are Dover egg-beaters, large and small; ordinary small wooden spoons and the larger perforated ones; a whip churn; granite saucepans and stew-pans, holding from half a pint to six quarts; double boilers; a wire basket for frying; a potato slicer; a fine wire broiler for toast, and two coarser ones for steak and fish; a set of pastry bags and frosting tubes; fancy vegetable cutters; a glass rolling-pin; and, above all, a small sharp-pointed knife, made from the best steel, for paring potatoes, turnips, etc., and a set of tin measuring-cups holding half a pint, and divided into quarters and thirds.
It is a mistake to have many large, unwieldy dishes. Small saucepans and small bowls are more convenient, and granite or agate ware is much lighter to handle and more easily kept clean than ironware. Buckets are convenient for keeping sugar and small quantities of flour. Glass jars or wide-mouthed bottles are best for nearly all groceries, such as rice, tapioca, meal, raisins, etc. They are easily cleansed, and the contents are plainly seen. They may be kept air-tight, or, if that be unnecessary, old jars not suitable for canning may be utilized.
A refrigerator should be examined daily and kept thoroughly clean. If a suitable brush cannot be had, a long stiff wire with a bit of cloth on the end should be used to clean the drain pipe. Four boiling washing-soda water through it every other day, and do not forget to wash off the slime that adheres to the water pan. Fish, onions, cheese, any strong vegetables, lemons, or meat not perfectly sweet, should not be kept in the same ice-box with milk or butter.
Do not become wedded to the idea that dishes can only be washed in a sink. If your pantry or cookroom be some distance from your sink, and have a broad shelf or table in it, take your dishpan to the pantry, wash and wipe your dishes there, and in this way save a few of the unnecessary steps which soon amount to miles with many weary housekeepers.
Never wash a bread-board in an iron sink. The iron will leave a black mark on the board, which it is difficult to remove. Wash the board on the table where you have used it; use cold water, and scrub occasionally with sand soap. In scraping dough from the board, scrape with the grain of the wood, and hold the knife in a slanting direction, to prevent roughening the surface of the board. Wash, and wipe dry, and never let dough accumulate in the cracks. Have one board for bread and pastry, and keep it smooth. Use a smaller board for rolling crumbs and pounding ana cleaning meat and fish.
A Dover egg-beater should never be left to soak in water, as the oil will be washed out of the gears and the beater be hard to turn; or, if used again before it be dry, the oil and water will spatter into the beaten mixture. Use it with clean hands, and then the handle will require no washing. Wipe the wires with a damp cloth immediately after using, dry thoroughly, and keep it well oiled.
All dishes should be scraped before washing. A small wooden knife is best for this purpose. Bread and cake bowls, or any dishes in which flour or eggs have been used, are more easily cleaned if placed in cold water after using, or washed immediately.
Clear up as you work: it takes but a moment then, and saves much time and fatigue afterward.
Never put pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak. It only hardens whatever may have ad- hered to the kettle, and makes it much more difficult to clean. Keep them full of cold water, and soak them away from the heat.
Kitchen knives and forks should never be placed in the dish water. Many err in thinking it is only the handles which should not be wet. The practice of putting the blades into a pitcher of very hot water is wrong, as the sudden expansion of the steel by the heat causes the handles to crack. Keep the knives out of the water, but wash thoroughly with the dishcloth, rub them with mineral soap or brick dust, and wipe them dry. Keep them bright, and sharpen often on a sandstone. The disadvantage and vexation of dull tools would be avoided if every woman would learn to use a whetstone, and where and when to apply a little oil.
Milk will sour quickly if put into dishes which have not been scalded. They should first be washed in clear cold water, then in hot soapy water, then rinsed in clear boiling water, and wiped with a dry fresh towel. Do not forget to scrape the seams and grooves of a double boiler.
Ironware should be washed, outside as well as inside, in hot soapy water, rinsed in clean hot water, and wiped dry, not with the dishcloth, but with a dry towel. Dripping-I pans, Scotch bowls, and other greasy dishes should be scraped, and wiped with soft paper, which will absorb the grease. The paper will be found useful in kindling the fire, and is a great saving of water, which is sometimes an object. A tablespoonful of soda added to the water will facilitate the cleaning.
Kitchen mineral soap or pumice stone may be used freely on all dishes. It will remove the stains from white knife handles, the brown substance that adheres to earthen or tin baking-dishes, and the soot which collects on pans and kettles used over a wood or kerosene fire. Tins should be washed in clean, hot soapy water. Rub them frequently with mineral soap, and they may be kept as bright as when new. Saucepans and other tin or granite dishes browned by use may be cleaned by letting them remain half an hour in boiling soda water, then rubbing with a wire dishcloth or stiff brush.
A new tin coffee-pot, if never washed on the inside with soap, may be kept much sweeter. Wash the outside, and rinse the inside thoroughly with clear water. Then put it on the stove to dry, and when dry rub the inside well with a clean, dry cloth. All the brown sediment may be wiped off in that way, but a soapy dishcloth should never be put inside.
Keep a granite pan near the sink to use in washing vegetables, and use the hand basin only for its legitimate purpose. Pare vegetables into the pan, and not into the sink. A strainer or any old quart tin pan with small holes in the bottom is a great help in keeping a sink clean. Pour the coffee and tea grounds, the dish water, and everything that is turned into the sink through the strainer first, and then empty the contents of the strainer into the refuse pail.
Never use a ragged or linty dishcloth. The lint collects round the sink spout, and often causes a serious obstruction. A dish mop is best for cups and cleanest dishes, but a strong linen cloth should be used for everything which requires hard rubbing. Wash the sink thoroughly, flush the drainpipe often with hot suds or soda water, wipe dry, and rub with a greased cloth or with kerosene. Keep it greased if you wish to prevent its rusting.
Cremation is the most satisfactory way of disposing of kitchen refuse, both as a matter of convenience and for sanitary reasons. But if there must be other disposition made of it, keep two pails and use them alternately, cleansing each as soon as emptied.
Wash dish towels in cold water, with plenty of soap, and rinse thoroughly in cold water, every time they are used. If left to dry without washing, they will be sticky to handle and have a disagreeable odor. If the dishes be well washed, rinsed, and drained, the dish towels will require no rubbing. It is easier to take care of three or four which have never been left to become grimy than to wash one after it is stained and saturated with grease. Towels used in this way may be kept sweet and clean without boiling or drying in the sun. This method has been proved by years of trial.
With a little care in observing these hints, and always using clean, hot soapy water (and not a liquid fit only for the swill cart), changing it as soon as greasy, dish-washing would be robbed of half its terrors. And after the work is done, if the hands be carefully washed with Castile soap, not with strong washing-soap, and wiped dry, no unpleasant effect upon the skin will be felt. Some use a little vinegar to counteract the effect of the alkali in the soap.
A large apron made like a child's tire, high in the neck, with long sleeves, and buttoned in the back, is the best pattern for a work apron. It protects the entire dress, and can be easily removed when one is called from the kitchen. Print or cambric with a white ground and small black figures wears better than colored print.
New, white mosquito netting and cheese cloth are useful for draining lettuce and for putting around fish, chicken, or vegetables which require careful boiling; also for bags for herbs and spices. Small squares of new cotton cloth are useful for wiping meat or fish. Keep them clean, and use for nothing else.
Keep a good supply of small holders, large coarse towels to use about the oven, and fine crash towels for wiping dishes. Keep a damp towel on the table when cooking, for wiping the hands. Avoid the habit of working with sticky or floury fingers, or using your apron for a hand towel or oven holder, or using the dish towels about the stove.
These suggestions are given by one who has always liked to wash dishes, and who thinks it not beneath the dignity of any woman to learn to do such work in the very best manner, and that no apology is needed for acknowledging a taste for this much-abused portion of domestic work.
How To Remove Iron Rust
Keep a bottle of strong solution of oxalic acid, plainly labelled "Poison," in a handy place for use on washing day. Gather up the cloth round the spot of rust, and dip the spot in cold water, then in the acid, and then in rapidly boiling water, holding it in the steam a few minutes. If the spot does not quickly disappear, repeat the process. The steam seems to be necessary with the acid. Then rinse thoroughly.
Essential Kitchen Knives and Their Care
Sep 7, 2010 Susan Caplan

Basic Kitchen Knives - Photo by Susan Caplan
Learn the purpose and best use of the different knives in knife sets and how to keep those knives in the best possible condition.
High-quality knives can last a lifetime and make cooking preparation and serving easier. The best knives are made from high-carbon stainless steel blades that resist corrosion and discoloration and will sharpen easily because they aren’t as hard as regular stainless steel. Invest in the best knives that you can afford. Pick up different knives to determine which feel balanced and comfortable in your hand.
Four Knives for Every Kitchen
If you are looking at a knife block set and it has these four basic, essential knives, you should meet most of your kitchen needs. * A bread knife usually has an 8-inch serrated blade that is good for slicing breads, bagels, cakes and tomatoes – foods with a tough exterior and a soft interior. * Chef’s or cook’s knife with an 8-inch or 10-inch blade is an elongated, wedge-shape knife used for shopping, dicing, and mincing food. * A 3-inch or 4-inch paring knife is used for peeling vegetables and fruits and cutting other small foods with its short blade. * A utility knife with a thin, 6-inch blade is used for slicing fruits, cheeses, sandwiches, cakes, dessert bars, and other soft foods.
If you have the money and have a use for the following knives, add them into your kitchen utensils.
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Over 2000 Kitchen Photos Kitchen cabinet ideas for every style of kitchen! GetDecorating.com/Kitchens * A 10-inch carving knife has a long, thin blade that is used for carving meat and poultry. * A boning knife has a narrow blade that works best at cutting meat off the bone. * A fillet knife is a long, thin, and flexible blade that is useful in filleting fish.
Caring for Knives
Knives are the kitchen utensils that should last for a lifetime. They require a little conscientious care to keep them in the best possible condition. * Always cut on a non-glass cutting board, not a plate. * Wash knives in hot, soapy water after using them; rinse and wipe dry. Avoid allowing knives to soak in water or washing them in a dishwasher as the detergents are too harsh. * Keep knives in a knife block or a protective case (which also protects the individual from sticking their hand in a drawer and slicing a finger against an exposed blade).
Sharpening Knives
Sharpen knives on a professional-style grind wheel or whetstone – or take them to a professional. Use a sharpening steel – a diamond-coated ridged rod made of steel or ceramic – to remove nicks and realign the edge.
Hold the sharpening steel vertically with the tip pressed against a stable surface. Place the knife blade against the steel near the handle at a 20 degree angle. In a slow, smooth motion, draw the blade down the full length of the steel, pulling it toward you. At the end of the motion, the tip of the blade should be near the tip of the steel. Repeat with the other side of the blade.
Read on * Best Steel Kitchen Knife Cutlery Guide * Ceramic and Steel Kitchen Knife Sharpeners * Kitchen Gadgets Galore
With four basic knives and a little care, most kitchens will be ready for the day-to-day cutting and chopping tasks a cook will face. Consider investing in the best knives that you can afford and devoting the small amount of time it takes to hand wash and dry the knives before putting them away after using them.
Kitchen utensils can be defined as a list of food preparation utensils, some of what is known as kitchenware. They include a large variety of products right from cookware, bakeware, utensils, cutlery pans & bowls to trays & casseroles. Cooking utensils made of stainless steel are available in varied sizes and shapes and can be made as per customer's specifications. One can also create a set by using assorted pieces. These utensils are available in various styles and designs ranging from engraved, imperial looking to very simple and elegant ones. Kitchen utensils made of stainless steel are mostly rust resistant thereby making them all the more user friendly.

Main benefits of stainless steel in kitchen utensils * Steel is lighter than other metals * It is one of the most hygienic surfaces for preparation of foods. * Steel will not affect relish as it does not react with foods during cooking. * With right care, it has a useful life anticipation of over many years, and it is completely reusable. * It is very easy to clean, as its unique surface has no pores or cracks. * It is very attractive and requires negligible care.

http://www.stainless-steel-kitchenware.com/kitchen-utensils.html

Volume (Dry) American Standard | Metric | 1/8 teaspoon | .5 ml | 1/4 teaspoon | 1 ml | 1/2 teaspoon | 2 ml | 3/4 teaspoon | 4 ml | 1 teaspoon | 5 ml | 1 tablespoon | 15 ml | 1/4 cup | 59 ml | 1/3 cup | 79 ml | 1/2 cup | 118 ml | 2/3 cup | 158 ml | 3/4 cup | 177 ml | 1 cup | 225 ml | 2 cups or 1 pint | 450 ml | 3 cups | 675 ml | 4 cups or 1 quart | 1 liter | 1/2 gallon | 2 liters | 1 gallon | 4 liters |
Volume (Liquid) American Standard (Cups & Quarts ) | American Standard (Ounces) | Metric (Milliliters & Liters) | 2 tbsp | 1 fl. oz. | 30 ml | 1/4 cup | 2 fl. oz. | 60 ml | 1/2 cup | 4 fl. oz. | 125 ml | 1 cup | 8 fl. oz. | 250 ml | 1 1/2 cups | 12 fl. oz. | 375 ml | 2 cups or 1 pint | 16 fl. oz. | 500 ml | 4 cups or 1 quart | 32 fl. oz. | 1000 ml or 1 liter | 1 gallon | 128 fl. oz. | 4 liters | |
Oven Temperatures American Standard | Metric | 250° F | 130° C | 300° F | 150° C | 350° F | 180° C | 400° F | 200° C | 450° F | 230° C |

Weight (Mass) American Standard (Ounces) | Metric (Grams) | 1/2 ounce | 15 grams | 1 ounce | 30 grams | 3 ounces | 85 grams | 3.75 ounces | 100 grams | 4 ounces | 115 grams | 8 ounces | 225 grams | 12 ounces | 340 grams | 16 ounces or 1 pound | 450 grams |

Dry Measure Equivalents | | | | 3 teaspoons | 1 tablespoon | 1/2 ounce | 14.3 grams | 2 tablespoons | 1/8 cup | 1 ounce | 28.3 grams | 4 tablespoons | 1/4 cup | 2 ounces | 56.7 grams | 5 1/3 tablespoons | 1/3 cup | 2.6 ounces | 75.6 grams | 8 tablespoons | 1/2 cup | 4 ounces | 113.4 grams | 12 tablespoons | 3/4 cup | 6 ounces | .375 pound | 32 tablespoons | 2 cups | 16 ounces | 1 pound | | British and American Variances | Term | Abbreviation | Nationality | Dry or liquid | Metric equivalent | Equivalent in context | cup | c., C. | | usually liquid | 237 milliliters | 16 tablespoons or 8 ounces | ounce | fl oz, fl. oz. | American | liquid only | 29.57 milliliters | | | | British | either | 28.41 milliliters | | gallon | gal. | American | liquid only | 3.785 liters | 4 quarts | | | British | either | 4.546 liters | 4 quarts | inch | in, in. | | | 2.54 centimeters | | ounce | oz, oz. | American | dry | 28.35 grams | 1/16 pound | | | | liquid | see OUNCE | see OUNCE | pint | p., pt. | American | liquid | 0.473 liter | 1/8 gallon or 16 ounces | | | | dry | 0.551 liter | 1/2 quart | | | British | either | 0.568 liter | | pound | lb. | | dry | 453.592 grams | 16 ounces | quart | q., qt, qt. | American | liquid | 0.946 liter | 1/4 gallon or 32 ounces | | | | dry | 1.101 liters | 2 pints | | | British | either | 1.136 liters | | teaspoon | t., tsp., tsp | | either | about 5 milliliters | 1/3 tablespoon | tablespoon | T., tbs., tbsp. | | either | about 15 milliliters | 3 teaspoons or 1/2 ounce | |

The charts below use standard U.S. measures following U.S. Government guideline. The charts offer equivalents for United States, metric, and Imperial (U.K.) measures. All conversions are approximate and most have been rounded up or down to the nearest whole number. Examples below: 1 teaspoon = 4.929 milliliters - rounded up to 5 milliliters1 ounce = 28.349 grams, - rounded down to 28 grams | Dry/Weight Measurements | | | | Ounces | Pounds | Metric | 1/16 teaspoon | a dash | | | | 1/8 teaspoon or less | a pinch or 6 drops | | . | .5 ml | 1/4 teaspoon | 15 drops | | | 1 ml | 1/2 teaspoon | 30 drops | | | 2 ml | 1 teaspoon | 1/3 tablespoon | 1/6 ounce | | 5 ml | 3 teaspoons | 1 tablespoon | 1/2 ounce | | 14 grams | 1 tablespoon | 3 teaspoons | 1/2 ounce | | 14 grams | 2 tablespoons | 1/8 cup | 1 ounce | | 28 grams | 4 tablespoons | 1/4 cup | 2 ounces | | 56.7 grams | 5 tablespoons plus 1 teaspoon | 1/3 cup | 2.6 ounces | | 75.6 grams | 8 tablespoons | 1/2 cup | 4 ounces | 1/4 pound | 113 grams | 10 tablespoons plus 2 teaspoons | 2/3 cup | 5.2 ounces | | 151 grams | 12 tablespoons | 3/4 cup | 6 ounces | .375 pound | 170 grams | 16 tablespoons | 1 cup | 8 ounces | .500 pound or 1/2 pound | 225 grams | 32 tablespoons | 2 cups | 16 ounces | 1 pound | 454 grams | 64 tablespoons | 4 cups or 1 quart | 32 ounces | 2 pounds | 907 grams | Liquid or Volume Measurements | | jigger or measure | 1 1/2 or 1.5 fluid ounces | | 3 tablespoons | 45 ml | 1 cup | 8 fluid ounces | 1/2 pint | 16 tablespoons | 237 ml | 2 cups | 16 fluid ounces | 1 pint | 32 tablespoons | 474 ml | 4 cups | 32 fluid ounces | 1 quart | 64 tablespoons | .946 ml | 2 pints | 32 fluid ounces | 1 quart | 4 cups | .964 liters | 4 quarts | 128 fluid ounces | 1 gallon | 16 cups | 3.8 liters | 8 quarts | 256 fluid ounces or one peck | 2 gallons | 32 cups | 7.5 liters | 4 pecks | one bushel | | | | dash | less than 1/4 teaspoon | | | | Conversions For Ingredients Commonly Used In Baking | | Ingredients | Ounces | Grams | 1 cup all-purpose flour | 5 ounces | 142 grams | 1 cup whole wheat flour | 8 1/2 ounces | 156 grams | | | | 1 cup granulated (white) sugar | 7 ounces | 198 grams | 1 cup firmly-packed brown sugar (light or dark) | 7 ounces | 198 grams | 1 cup powdered (confectioners') sugar | 4 ounces | 113 grams | | | | 1 cup cocoa powder | 3 ounces | 85 grams | | | | Butter (salted or unsalted) | | | 4 tablespoons = 1/2 stick = 1/4 cup | 2 ounces | 57 grams | 8 tablespoons = 1 stick = 1/2 cup | 4 ounces | 113 grams | 16 tablespoons = 2 sticks = 1 cup | 8 ounces | 227 grams | |

Oven Temperatures | | Fahrenheit | Celsius | Gas Mark (Imperial) | Description | 225 degrees F. | 105 degrees C. | 1/3 | very cool | 250 degrees F. | 120 degrees C. | 1/2 | | 275 degrees F. | 130 degrees C. | 1 | cool | 300 degrees F. | 150 degrees C. | 2 | | 325 degrees F. | 165 degrees C | 3 | very moderate | 350 degrees F. | 180 degrees C. | 4 | moderate | 375 degrees F. | 190 degrees C. | 5 | | 400 degrees F. | 200 degrees C. | 6 | moderately hot | 425 degrees F. | 220 degrees C. | 7 | hot | 450 degrees F. | 230 degrees C. | 8 | | 475 degrees F. | 245 degrees C. | 9 | very hot |

Cooking Measurement Equivalents
The information below shows measuring equivalents for teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, pints, fluid ounces, and more. This page also includes the conversions for metric and U.S. systems of measurement.
See the Infoplease.com conversion calculator 1 tablespoon (tbsp) = | 3 teaspoons (tsp) | 1/16 cup = | 1 tablespoon | 1/8 cup = | 2 tablespoons | 1/6 cup = | 2 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons | 1/4 cup = | 4 tablespoons | 1/3 cup = | 5 tablespoons + 1 teaspoon | 3/8 cup = | 6 tablespoons | 1/2 cup = | 8 tablespoons | 2/3 cup = | 10 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons | 3/4 cup = | 12 tablespoons | | | 1 cup = | 48 teaspoons | 1 cup = | 16 tablespoons | 8 fluid ounces (fl oz) = | 1 cup | 1 pint (pt) = | 2 cups | 1 quart (qt) = | 2 pints | 4 cups = | 1 quart | 1 gallon (gal) = | 4 quarts | 16 ounces (oz) = | 1 pound (lb) | 1 milliliter (ml) = | 1 cubic centimeter (cc) | 1 inch (in) = | 2.54 centimeters (cm) |
Source: United States Dept. of Agriculture (USDA).
U.S.–Metric Cooking Conversions
U.S. to Metric Capacity | Weight | 1/5 teaspoon | 1 milliliter | 1 oz | 28 grams | 1 teaspoon | 5 ml | 1 pound | 454 grams | 1 tablespoon | 15 ml | | | 1 fluid oz | 30 ml | | | 1/5 cup | 47 ml | | | 1 cup | 237 ml | | | 2 cups (1 pint) | 473 ml | | | 4 cups (1 quart) | .95 liter | | | 4 quarts (1 gal.) | 3.8 liters | | |
Metric to U.S. Capacity | Weight | 1 milliliter | 1/5 teaspoon | 1 gram | .035 ounce | 5 ml | 1 teaspoon | 100 grams | 3.5 ounces | 15 ml | 1 tablespoon | 500 grams | 1.10 pounds | 100 ml | 3.4 fluid oz | 1 kilogram | 2.205 pounds
= 35 ounces | 240 ml | 1 cup | | | 1 liter | 34 fluid oz
= 4.2 cups
= 2.1 pints
= 1.06 quarts
= 0.26 gallon | | |

Read more: Cooking Measurement Equivalents — Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001723.html#ixzz11Sf5fx1Y

Liquid Measurement and Equivalents
Liquid measurement and equivalents help you measure how much volume of liquid will occupy a container. There are two systems for liquid measurement and equivalents, the English system and the metric system. The following article will introduce you to both the systems with the help of charts for liquid measurement and equivalents.

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Liquids are difficult to to measure than solid substances due to the surface tension of liquids. If you closely observe, the surface of the liquid poured in a container is not flat, instead it has a convex shape. This is because of two factors; gravity, that pulls the liquid downwards and the surface tension of the liquid near the sides of the container pulling it gently towards the edges. This makes it very difficult to correctly measure the liquids, especially when the volume is very small.

The dry and liquid measurements that are under a pint are same for all liquid or dry recipes, in America. Many people are confused with the dry measurement equivalents as a measure of weight and the liquid measurements equivalents as the measure of volume. When you are measuring a liquid, it is very important to find the meniscus. This is the lowest part of the convex shape that is made by the liquid in the measuring container. You should observe the container from eye level and if you see the liquid slightly above or below, you may find a little shift in the meniscus and get inaccurate readings.

Once you have located the correct meniscus line, holding the measuring container at eye level, add or remove the liquid, till you have the desired volume in the container. If you can't locate a meniscus, it means that your container is dirty and hence the container cannot hold the correct surface tension of the liquid.

You can use many types of measuring containers to measure liquid. To measure smallest amount of liquid in cubic centimeters, you can use the burette. To measure more volume, use the graduated cylinder. To measure a drop, you can use syringes and droppers. You may find measuring spoons and measuring cups that have marking of the English system or the metric system or both. Now, let us see the liquid measurements equivalents using the liquid measurement chart.

Liquid Measurement Chart Liquid Measurement | 1 dash | 6 drops | 3 teaspoons | ½ ounce | 1 pony | 1 ounce | 1 jigger | 1½ ounce | 1 large jigger | 2 ounces | 1 standard whiskey glass | 2 ounces | 1 pint | 16 fluid ounces | 1 fifth | 25.6 fluid ounces | 1 quart | 32 fluid ounces | 1 gallon | 128 ounces |

Liquid Measurements Conversion Chart Liquid Measurement | Volume Equivalent | 1 teaspoon | 1/3 teaspoon | 1 tablespoon | 3 teaspoon | 1 tablespoon | 1/16 cup | 2 tablespoon | 1 fluid ounce | 2 tablespoon | 1/8 cup | 2 tablespoon + 2 teaspoon | 1/6 cup | 4 tablespoon | 1/4 cup | 5 tablespoon + 1 teaspoon | 1/3 cup | 6 tablespoon | 3/8 cup | 8 tablespoon | 1 tea cup 04 4 fluid ounces | 10 tablespoon + 2 teaspoons | 2/3 cup | 12 tablespoon | 3/4 cup | 16 tablespoon | 1 cup or 8 fluid ounces | 3/8 cup | 1/4 cup or 2 tablespoon | 5/8 cups | 1/2 cup + 2 tablespoon | 7/8 cup | 1/4 pint or 4 fluid ounces | 1/2 cup | 1/4 pint or 4 fluid ounces | 1 cup | 1/2 pint or 8 fluid ounces | 2 cups | 1 pint or 16 fluid ounces | 1 pint | 16 fluid ounces | 2 pints | 1 quart | 4 cups | 1 quart | 4 quarts | 1 gallon |

Liquid Measurement | Volume Equivalent | 1 U.S. teaspoon | 5 milliliters | 11 U.S. tablespoon | 15 milliliters | 1/2 U.S. cup | .118 liters | 1 U.S. cup | .236 liters, approx. 1/4 liter | 1 U.S. pint | .4732 liters | 1 U.S. quart | .9463 liters | 1 U.S. gallon | 3.785 liters |

U.S Measurements Vs English Measurements US Measurement | English Measurement | 1¼ U.S. teaspoons | 1 English teaspoon | 1 1/4 U.S. tablespoons | 1 English tablespoon | 1/2 U.S. cup | 5/6 English teacup | 1 U.S. cup | 5/6 English breakfast - cup | 1 U.S. pint | 5/6 English - Imperial - pint | 1 U.S. gallon | 5/6 English - Imperial - gallon | 1 U.S. quart p | 5/6 English - Imperial - quart |

Dry Measurements Conversion Table Dry Measure | Volume Equivalent | 1 quart | 2 pints | 8 quarts | 1 peck | 4 pecks | 1 bushel | 1 U.S. pint | 1 English pint | 1 U.S. quart | 1 English quart | 1 U.S. peck | 1 English peck | 1 U.S. gallon | 1 English gallon | 1 U.S. pint | .551 liters | 1 U.S. quart | 1.101 liters | 1 U.S. peck | 8.81 liters | 1 U.S. bushel | 35.24 liters |

You can find more information on: * Metric System * Metric Measurements
These are a few liquid measurement tables and dry measurement tables that you may find useful when measuring liquids and dry ingredients. The ounce and the pound are the most common units of weight or mass measurement for cooking in the US. The ounce of weight is not same as the ounce of fluid. There are many kinds of weight measurements like the Troy weight, Apothecaries weight and the Avoirdupois weight. If you are in US and someone refers to measurements like pounds and ounces of weight while cooling, they are generally referring to the Avoirdupois weight. I hope you have found this article in liquid measurements and equivalents useful. By Batul Nafisa Baxamusa |

BASIC GUIDELINES
Here's a basic guide to measuring common ingredients. * Flour: Stir flour in the storage container or bag. Using a large spoon, lightly spoon flour from the container into the measuring cup. Do not shake the cup and do not pack the flour. Using the back of a knife or flat blade spatula, level off the flour even with the top edge of the measuring cup. Don't use the measuring cup to scoop the flour out of the container. You can end up with 150% of the correct measurement if you do this! One cup of correctly measured flour should weigh about 112 grams. * Baking powder and soda: Stir in the container. Using the measuring spoon, lightly scoop out of the container. Use that knife to level off even with the top edge of the measuring spoon. * Brown sugar: This needs to be packed into the measuring cup. The sugar should retain the shape of the cup when it is dropped into the other ingredients. * Liquid ingredients: Liquids need to be measured at eye level. Using the liquid measuring cup, pour the liquid into the cup. Then bend over so you are on the same level with the measuring marks. The liquid should be right at the mark, not above or below. * Shortening and solid fats: Butter and margarine have measuring amounts marked on the sides of the paper wrapping. One quarter pound stick of butter or margarine equals 1/2 cup. You can also use the liquid displacement method for measuring solid fats. For instance, if you want 1/2 cup of shortening, fill a liquid measuring cup with 1/2 cup of cold water. Then add shortening until the water level reaches 1 cup when you look at it at eye level. Pour out the water and use the shortening. * Liquid ingredients in spoons: Make sure that you don't measure small amounts of liquid ingredients over the mixing bowl. It's just too easy to spill, and you don't want 2 teaspoons of almond extract when the recipe only calls for 1 teaspoon! * Chopped ingredients: Pay close attention to whether or not an ingredient is to be chopped, diced or minced, and whether they are measured before chopping or after. Then the foods are placed in the measuring cup so the top is level with the surface.
When you bake cookies, cakes, breads, pie crusts, and candies, measuring accurately is really critical to the success of the recipe. When you are cooking casseroles, soups, stir fries, and meats, you can vary amounts more and the end result will still be good.

Measuring accurately is probably the most important cooking skill in the kitchen. Home Economists in test kitchens spend many hours testing recipes with varying measurements in a process called 'tolerance testing'. A recipe must perform well even though the ingredient amounts are changed; if the recipe failstolerance testing, it is not published. Even though the recipes in cookbooks are quite 'tolerant', the cook still has to follow basic rules of measuring.
To begin, make sure that you have actual commercial measuring utensils. Nested (graduated) measuring cups are used for dry ingredients. Measuring spoons are needed - your stainless coffee spoon just isn't the correct tool! For liquid ingredients, you need a clear glass or plastic cup with a pouring spout.
Graduated measuring cups are made in 1/4 cup, 1/3 cup, 1/2 cup, 1 cup, and 2 cup sizes. Liquid measuring cups are usually either 2 cup or 4 cup. Measuring spoons usually range from 1/8 teapoon, 1/4 teaspoon, 1/2 teaspoon, 1 teaspoon, and 1 tablespoon. It's possible to find other more esoteric utensils including 1/8 cup, 2/3 cup, and very small spoons. I have a set that measures "a pinch", "a smidgen", and "a dash" that were a gift from my sister.
Here's a basic guide to measuring common ingredients. * Flour
Stir flour in the storage container or bag. Using a large spoon, lightly spoon flour from the container into the measuring cup. Do not shake the cup and do not pack the flour. Using the back of a knife or flat blade spatula, level off the flour even with the top edge of the measuring cup. Don't use the measuring cup to scoop the flour out of the container. You can end up with 150% of the correct measurement if you do this! One cup of correctly measured flour should weigh about 112 grams. * Baking powder and Baking Soda
Stir in the container. Using the measuring spoon, lightly scoop out of the container. Use that knife to level off even with the top edge of the measuring spoon. * Sugar
Sugar is measured by scooping the cup or measuring spoon into the container or bag until it is overflowing, then leveling off with the back of a knife. * Brown Sugar
This needs to be packed into the measuring cup. The sugar should retain the shape of the cup when it is dropped into the other ingredients. * Powdered Sugar
Powdered sugar usually needs to be sifted to remove small lumps. It is measured by spooning the sugar into the measuring cup from the container, then leveling off with the back of a knife. * Liquid Ingredients
Liquids need to be measured at eye level. Using the liquid measuring cup, pour the liquid into the cup. Then bend over so you are on the same level with the measuring marks. The liquid should be right at the mark, not above or below. * Semi-Liquid Ingredients
Ingredients like sour cream, peanut butter, and yogurt are measured using dry measuring cups because they are too thick to be accurately measured in the liquid cups. Level off sour cream and peanut butter with the back of a knife. * Shortening and Solid Fats
Butter and margarine have measuring amounts marked on the sides of the paper wrapping. One quarter pound stick of butter or margarine equals 1/2 cup. Solid shortening is measured by packing it into a cup so there are no air spaces, then leveling off with the knife. To easily remove fats from baking cups, spray them with a nonstick cooking spray before measuring. You can also use the liquid displacement method for measuring solid fats. For instance, if you want 1/2 cup of shortening, fill a liquid measuring cup with 1/2 cup of cold water. Then add shortening until the water level reaches 1 cup when you look at it at eye level. Pour out the water and use the shortening. Oil is measured as a liquid. * Liquid Ingredients in Spoons
Make sure that you don't measure small amounts of liquid ingredients over the mixing bowl. It's just too easy to spill, and you don't want 2 teaspoons of almond extract when the recipe only calls for 1 teaspoon! * Dry Ingredients in Spoons
Ingredients measured in these small amounts still have to be measured carefully. Overfill the measuring spoons and level off using the back of a knife for the most accurate amounts. Accurate amounts of ingredients like baking soda and powder are critical to the success of any baked product. * Chopped Ingredients
Pay close attention to whether or not an ingredient is to be chopped, diced or minced, and whether they are measured before chopping or after. Then the foods are placed in the measuring cup so the top is level with the surface.
When you bake cookies, cakes, breads, pie crusts, and candies, measuring accurately is really critical to the success of the recipe. When you are cooking casseroles, soups, stir fries, and meats, you can vary amounts more and the end result will still be good.
I remember liquid measurements this way: 2 cups in a pint, 2 pints in a quart, 4 quarts in a gallon. Memorize that!
Using these rules and tips, you can be confident that any recipe you tackle will be a success. Dry Ingredient Equivalents | 1 tablespoon | 3 teaspoons | 15 ml | 1/8 cup | 2 tablespoons | 30 ml | 1/4 cup | 4 tablespoons | 50 ml | 1/3 cup | 5-1/3 tablespoons | 75 ml | 1/2 cup | 8 tablespoons | 125 ml | 2/3 cup | 10-2/3 tablespoons | 150 ml | 3/4 cup | 12 tablespoons | 175 ml | 1 cup | 16 tablespoons | 250 ml | Wet Ingredient Equivalents | 1 cup | 8 fluid ounces | 1/2 pint | 2 cups | 16 fluid ounces | 1 pint | 4 cups | 32 fluid ounces | 2 pints | 8 cups | 64 fluid ounces | 4 pints |