...criticisms identified in particular psychological experiments will be discussed. Psychologists use several methods of research, each of which provides information about human behaviour. These methods include: naturalistic observation, survey method, correlational method, the experimental method ( laboratory, field experiments) the correlational method and case studies. In general psychological research methods attempt to: Describe mental and physical behavior; explain the reasons for that behaviour, and predict the circumstances under which it might happen again (Mcleod 2012). None of the methods is able to study all aspects of human behaviour and thought. For example, In naturalistic observation methods participants are carefully observed in their natural setting without interference by the researchers. Researchers observe and record behaviour without trying to influence or control it while participants are not aware of observation. In survey methods a large group of people are questioned about their attitudes, beliefs, etc. by using interviews and/or questionnaires. The experimental method consists of allocating participants to groups and controls all conditions other than the one or more independent variables which are then manipulated to determine their effect on some behaviour measured, a variable is any condition/factor that can be manipulated, controlled or measured...
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...the risk of participant identification where possible. Kamala, a second year psychology graduate student, is conducting a study that revolves around the bystander experience of sexual assault on campus. Kamala anticipates that some of her participants are involved in the recent cases of sexual assault on campus, and look forward to them sharing stories from their experience in the interview. However, a case like this, involves ethical consideration, challenges (to both the interviewer and the interviewee) and potential solutions. In terms of ethical consideration, sexual assault contains sensitive information. Interviewees may or may not have painful and unusual stories to tell, and...
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... and Autistic disorder (autism). Autistic disorder will be the focus of this study (CDC, 2012). Children develop autism before the age of three years and struggle with it throughout their lives (CDC, 2012). “Autism creates many challenges in the child’s life and it negatively impacts; intellectual disabilities, language delays, social and communication difficulties and unexpected behaviour and interests” (CDC, 2012). Autism does not segregate between racial and ethnic groups, nor does it relate to socioeconomic status; however it has been proven to occur more often in males than in females (CDC, 2012). Over the past decade there has been a significant increase in the number of autistic diagnoses (CDC, 2012). Evidence has shown that the development of autism occurs during the pregnancy phase (Schmidt, 2011); which leads this study to analyze the association between intake of iron, and zinc during pregnancy and preventing autism in the offspring. Specific Aims The proposed study will be focused on whether women who take iron and zinc supplements during the three trimesters of the pregnancy will reduce the risk of autism in their offspring. The goal of this study is to develop an association between vitamin exposures and the outcome of prevented risk of autism. The proposal can potentially establish correlations that will help identify, and prevent risk factors of autism. Two objectives for this study are: to measure the prevalence of autism among young children in Canada, and...
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... and Autistic disorder (autism). Autistic disorder will be the focus of this study (CDC, 2012). Children develop autism before the age of three years and struggle with it throughout their lives (CDC, 2012). “Autism creates many challenges in the child’s life and it negatively impacts; intellectual disabilities, language delays, social and communication difficulties and unexpected behaviour and interests” (CDC, 2012). Autism does not segregate between racial and ethnic groups, nor does it relate to socioeconomic status; however it has been proven to occur more often in males than in females (CDC, 2012). Over the past decade there has been a significant increase in the number of autistic diagnoses (CDC, 2012). Evidence has shown that the development of autism occurs during the pregnancy phase (Schmidt, 2011); which leads this study to analyze the association between intake of iron, and zinc during pregnancy and preventing autism in the offspring. Specific Aims The proposed study will be focused on whether women who take iron and zinc supplements during the three trimesters of the pregnancy will reduce the risk of autism in their offspring. The goal of this study is to develop an association between vitamin exposures and the outcome of prevented risk of autism. The proposal can potentially establish correlations that will help identify, and prevent risk factors of autism. Two objectives for this study are: to measure the prevalence of autism among young children in Canada, and...
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...introduce prejudice into the legal system and form impressions of defendants in criminal cases; which may contradict a fair trial (MacLin & Herrera, 2006). They are perceptual representations that are perceived for members of a group and include the evaluation of that particular group e.g. their behavior and attributes (MacLin & Herrera, 2006). Recognising stereotypes and understanding how they create bias, has significant effects in the criminal justice system. It is desired to maximize the amount of correct decisions jurors render, For this reason, stereotyping is important to study in a jury setting. It is also imperative to study defendant gender and crime type, as a relationship between the two may influence jurors’ verdict decisions. Gordon, Bindrim, McNicholas and Walden (1988) conducted a study to determine the effect of defendant race and type of crime on juror verdicts. The independent variable was the type of crime (burglary or embezzlement) and defendant race (black or white), while the dependent variable was the recommended jail sentence. Crime descriptions that varied in crime type and defendant race where given to an equal number of black and white students to assess. Based on this, participants determined the defendant’s jail sentence and bail amount. The severity of the crime and the probability of the defendant repeating the crime were also scaled. The studies hypothesis was supported as the white embezzler received longer jail sentences in comparison...
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...Case Study Calculations 1a. Direct Education: SNAP-Ed PARTICIPANTS by Age and SNAP Status • For Question 1a, indicate below if you are providing actual unduplicated counts or an estimate of SNAP-Ed direct education participants. _X__ Actual Counts of Participants (unduplicated) ___ Estimated Counts of Participants | | |A |B |C |D |E | |1 |Number of SNAP Recipients in SNAP-Ed | |4,032 |859 |180 |5,071 | |2 |Number of All Other Participants in | |3,448 |329 |132 |3,909 | | |SNAP-Ed | | | | | | |3 |Total Number of SNAP-Ed Participants | |7,480 |1,188 |312 |8,980 | Answers in Table: B1= 3074 + 958 C1=168 + 320 + 293 + 78 B3= 5800 + 1680 C3=216 + 420 +450 +102 B2= B3 – B1 C2= C3 – C1 D1=90 + 90 E1= 4032 + 859 + 180 D3 = 150 + 162 E2= 3448 + 329 + 132 D2= C3 – C1 E3= 7480 + 1188 + 312 F1b. Direct Education: SNAP-Ed CONTACTS by Age and SNAP Status • For Question 1b, indicate below if you are providing actual counts or an estimate of SNAP-Ed direct education contacts. ___ Actual Counts of Contacts __X_ Estimated Counts...
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...The Picture Superiority Effect Abstract: Participants were split into two groups and each group took part in a different condition of the study. One group looked at images and the other group looked at words. There was a visuospatial task and then the participants had to recall as much of the stimuli they were assigned to as possible. Results proved to be as expected; that participants remembered images much more than they remembered words. However there were some issues with the study which were analysed in the discussion section. Introduction: The aim of this experiment was to find out whether people were more able to recall pictures or words more after seeing them for a very short amount of time. There have been many experiments into the picture superiority effect. It is said that “free verbal recall is generally higher for items presented as pictures than for items presented as words.” (Paivio and Csapo) This study sets out to test that theory – but with a visuospatial task added in between seeing the stimuli and the recall. This is in order to test whether people recall words or images better after a period of distraction. s. In a study by (Paivio 1991) he claimed that pictures have the advantage over words because they are amenable to semantic encoding through two different routes whereas words are processed only through a verbal pathway. This study suggests images will be superior in people’s memories to words as they have more ways of being memorised by the human...
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...according to Al-Shawaf (2016), hunger has the potential to affect regulating emotional mechanisms within the body including perception, attention, and memory. If this is the case, hunger plays an important role in maintaining emotional homeostasis. Al-Shawaf (2016) uses an evolutionary task analysis of hunger and its effects of human psychological processes such as perception, attention, categorization, and memory. Al-Shawaf (2016) hypothesizes and finds that hunger has the ability to suppress attention...
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...access to antiretroviral treatment for research participants in developing countries. Am J Public Health. 2009; 99(9):1556–1562. 2. National Institutes of Health. Guidance for addressing the provision of antiretroviral treatment for trial participants following their completion of NIH funded antiretroviral treatment trials in developing countries. 2005. Available at: http://grants.nih.gov/ grants/policy/antiretroviral/index.htm. Accessed October 20, 2009. 3. Shaffer DN, Yebei VN, Ballidawa JB, et al. Equitable treatment for HIV/AIDS clinical trial participants: a focus group study of patients, clinician researchers, and administrators in western Kenya. J Med Ethics. 2006;32:55–60. 4. Posse M, Meheus F, Van Asten H, van der Ven A, Baltussen R. Barriers to access to antiretroviral treatment in developing countries: a review. Trop Med Int Health. 2008;13(7):904–913. 5. MacQueen KM, Namey E, Chilongozi DA, et al. Community perspectives on care options for HIV prevention trial participants. AIDS Care. 2007;19(4): 554–560. SHAH AND GRADY RESPOND Onyeabor’s letter highlighted some of the ethical complexities inherent in posttrial access. Although we agree that ethically, individuals benefiting from antiretroviral therapy should continue to receive it, the challenge for all of us involved in the ethical conduct of research is to be clear about how this should occur. Many study participants in developing countries, including those in the studies cited, understandably feel that antiretroviral...
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...A Case Study: A Focused Study of Homeless Students Toni R. Brent-Willis Capella University ED8102 – Introduction to Qualitative Research, Dr. Patricia Ryan August 4, 2013 Case study research is designed to bring a greater understanding of a specific phenomena or experience. It can also serve to deepen the understanding of an experience that is already known. Yin (1984) defines case study as research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (p. 23). It presents details on a bounded event or participant experiencing the event. Case study has its roots in anthropology, sociology, and psychology, but gained legitimacy as a valid methodology for use in other fields of study in the 1980’s. It is useful in close examination of existing phenomena of which in-depth study has not been done, or has un-explored areas. While case studies do fall within the category of qualitative research, they are used when attention to a specific subject, or participant will garnered information about a phenomena or experience that a wide study can not provide. Gobo (2004) writes that in some instances generalizations based on large samples are overrated and close attention to a limited number of participants is more reliable. Information on how or why a specific participant was able to navigate...
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...strongly believe that there are multiple perspectives to be uncovered. Qualitative researchers focus on the study of social phenomena and on giving voice to the feelings and perceptions of the participants under study. This is based on the belief that knowledge is derived from the social setting and that understanding social knowledge is a legitimate scientific process. The following are the key characteristics of qualitative research: • Studies are carried out in a naturalistic setting. • Researchers ask broad research questions designed to explore, interpret, or understand the social context. • Participants are selected through nonrandom methods based on whether the individuals have information vital to the questions being asked. • Data collection techniques involve observation and interviewing that bring the researcher in close contact with the participants. • The researcher is likely to take an interactive role where she or he gets to know the participants and the social context in which they live. • Hypotheses are formed afterthe researcher begins data collection and are modified throughout the study as new data are collected and analyzed. • The study reports data in narrative form. How does Rayna’s study fit into the description provided for qualitative research? At this point, you might want to reflect on why Rayna would want to choose a qualitative study to examine her questions. Steps in Conducting Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers use scientific...
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...Define reliability and validity Then use a study to determine how reliable and valid it is, justify answer Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure. Bartlett, 1932 Reliability Did more than one person record and interpret the data, and do they agree? If you use the same methods again in the same situation, do you get the same results? No, when the experiment was replicated (better controlled) many of the errors in peoples recalling was not found even though the same kinds of errors remained. Validity: Methodological issues * Did not ask participants to be as accurate as possible * Didn’t care much about the environment in which the experiment was conducted Define qualitative and quantitative research, then compare and contrast them, strengths and limitations of qualitative research Quantitative: Explaining a phenomenon by collecting quantitative (numerical) data that are analysed using mathematically based methods such as statistics. Qualitative: Instead of testing, measuring, and experimenting, qualitative research aims at understanding the subject of study …the process of understanding a social or human phenomenon, based on methodological research traditions. Researchers aim at generating a complex, holistic view, at analysing and describing the standpoint of the subjects within a natural context. Quantitative;...
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...traits associated with Alzheimer’s disease?-A case-control study” is very informative for those researching such cases. This paper will provide an explanation as to how the research for the above article was conducted. Research is a vital process that consists of very specific stages which result in new conclusions. These stages consist of selecting an issue to conduct research on, formulate a hypothesis, reviewing the provided information, identifying each different aspect, providing an explanation, and analyzing the information/data in order to formulate a conclusion. Just as the article is titled, this is a case-control study. Each participant and informant which will be explained provided consent, whether it was written or verbal. This design of research was utilized to identify and provide factors which are believed to possibly play a role in certain medical conditions. As any other research is conducted and hypotheses are formed, a comparison must be made to establish the case. In this study, there were 217 participants which have onset Alzheimer’s disease. Out of the 217 participants, there were 57 males and 160 females. This portion of participants was grouped between the ages of 67 to 98 years of age. The control groups were made up of 76 siblings who do not have the same condition, Alzheimer’s. This group consisted of 32 males and 44 females, and was between the ages of 61-68 years of age. Each individual participant was assigned an informant who was responsible...
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...Experiences in Meeting New Mathematics Standards. Throughout the course of the 1999-2000 school year, Dorgan observed and interviewed teachers who were members of the faculty of an economically and racially diverse elementary school in Virginia. The purpose behind the case study was to examine how the changes in the state Standards of Learning would effect pedagogical decision making, teaching and learning, and methods of instruction and evaluation. My evaluation/critique of this article is an holistic interpretation of the study as an example of a qualitative research project and is based on my understandings of this type of study from my involvement in Education 6100: Research and Design Methods from Memorial University of Newfoundland. My concern is to develop a systematic and analytical discussion based around the degree to which this case study exemplifies the characteristics of qualitative research. Qualitative Research Article Critique In her article A Year in the Life of an Elementary School: One School’s Experiences in Meeting New Mathematics Standards, Karen Dorgan (2004) outlines a non-participatory case study undertaken during the course of the 1999—2000 school year. This study focused on the faculty of an elementary school in the state of Virginia (USA) and its efforts in coping with changes in the educational standards of learning for that state. Dorgan’s report indicates that she triangulated her data collection techniques in an ethnographic...
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...The case study highlighted the difficulty of interviewing young female offenders due to the vulnerable nature of the young girls which stemmed from childhood trauma and drug abuse. The cognitive model of anxiety emphasises that socially anxious individuals shift their attention focus to negative self-focused cognitions, leading to subsequent avoidance behaviours when confronted with an issue (Schulz, Alpers and Hofmann 2008). Thus, anxiety presents a host of potential issues that can impair the results of the interview for the researcher with participants suffering from anxiety struggling to communicate openly and...
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