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建议大家考前再看,希望那时候你们还能记住有这么一份东西。次有,一定花点功夫把他背下来,到时候考场上写论述题时才有内容,而且速度很快。再者,如果不知道从哪些方面论述时,也一定要把字数写够,而且要足够工整,像法治、法的价值、人权这些都是必备万金油。 1. 法的局限性 尽管法在社会生活中有着举足轻重得作用,但法却不是万能的。因为法是以社会为基础的,所以他不可能超出社会发展的需要来创造社会;其次,法律也是一种社会规范,因此必然要受到其他社会规范的制约;再者法律自身条件也制约着法律,如语言表达的局限等等。在实践活动中,我们一定要结合法律的特点让它发挥最大的作用。 2. 自由 从哲学观念层面上讲,自由就是在没有外在强制力时能够按自己的意志和目的来安���自己的活动。马克思说过:“法典是人民自由的圣经”,那么从法的价值层面上讲,自由究竟是什么呢?应该是法以确认和保障人的这种行为能力为己任,从而使主体与客体之间能够达到一种和谐的状态。法律应该是给自由提供保障,而自由是评价法律进步与否的标准,更重要的是它体现了人性最深刻的需要。没有自由,法律就仅仅是一种限制人们行为的强制性规范,而无法真正体现它在提升人的价值、维护尊严上的伟大意义。 3.秩序 古希腊哲学家亚里士多德曾说过这样一句话:法律就是秩序,有好的法律才有好的秩序。虽然这只揭示了法一个方面的价值,但由此可见秩序在法的价值中的重要性。法学上所言秩序,主要是指社会秩序,它表明的是通过法律结构、法律规范、法律权威所形成的一种法律状态。关于法服务于秩序是不容置疑的,关键是法服务于谁的秩序、怎样的秩序。秩序是法的基本价值,首要任务就是要确保统治阶级秩序的建立;其次人们在社会生活中期望着行为安全与行为、社会的协调,这决定了秩序是法的基本价值;再次,法还是其他价值的基础,虽然自由和正义位阶在秩序之前,但同样需要以秩序为基础。失去了秩序的保障,所有的价值就会因为缺乏必要的保障而面临现实的威胁而最后丧失其意义。但是,秩序一定要符合人性,符合常理为目的,所以它应当收到自由和正义的限制。 4. 正义 正义存在于人与人的相互交往中,“不正义”绝对不会存在于孤立的个人之上,公正只是一种涉及利害关系的场合,要求平等地对待他人的观念形态,也就是我们通常所说的:把各人应得的东西还给各人。从实质内容上而言,正义体现在平等、公正等诸多我们所熟悉的具体形态中。正义是法的基本标准,是评价体系,也极大地推动了法律的进化。正义形成了法律精神上进化的观念源头,促进了法律地位的提高,推动了法律内部结构的完善,也提高了法律的实效。法律的执行不仅要有利于秩序的维持,更主要的是要实现社会正义。正义不仅应当得到实现,而且应当以人们看得到的方式得到实现。 5.法的实施与实现 ⑴.法在制定出来以后,实施前只是一种应然的状态,一种书本上的法律。法的实施就是要使法律从书本上的法律变成行动上的法律,使它从抽象的行为模式变成人们的具体行为,从应然走向实然; ⑵.法的实现是指法的要求在社会生活中被转化为现实; ⑶.法的实施强调一种过程和行动,包括法的遵守、法的执行、法的适用;法的实效强调实施后的状态和结果,侧重于结果; ⑷.法的实现是将法的实施过程性和法的实效结果性结合的一个概念; ⑸.法的实现有着重要的意义,法作为一种通过规定人们权利、义务关系来调整人们行为或社会关系的规范,只有将抽象的行为模式转化为人们现实的权利、义务关系,才能发挥其应有的功能。 6.司法 司法即法的适用,是法律实施的一种方式,是根据法定职权和法定程序,具体应用法律处理案件的活动。 ⑴.司法由特定的国家机关及其公职人员按照法定职权实施法律的专门活动,具有国家权威性:以国家强制力保障实施具有国家强制性;严格依照法定程序,运用法律处理案件,具有严格的程序性及合法性;同时司法还必须有表明法的适用结果的法律文书。从以上特点可以看出司法对实现立法目的,发挥法律的功能有重要意义; ⑵.司法原则 ①司法公正 司法公正是社会正义的一个重要组成部分。它既包括实质公正,也包括形式公正,其中尤其以程序公正为重点。司法公正有着无比重要的意义。英国哲学家培根在《论司法》中有一段精彩的论述:一次不公的裁判比多次的违法行为更严重,因为这些违法行为不过弄脏了水流,而不公的裁判则把水源败坏了。司法公正的重要意义在于它是法的内在精神要求,是由其司法活动裁判案件的性质决定的,同时公正司法也是其自身存在的合法性基础。如果司法机关不能保持其公正性,司法机关也就失去了自我存在的社会基础。我认为有一句话怎么说都不为过:公正是司法的生命! ②司法独立 在我国,司法机关独立行使职权,在宪法、刑事诉讼法、民事诉讼法、人民院阻止法、人民检察院组织法等都明确规定了这一原则。它体现了如下含意:司法权专属于审判机关和检察机关,其他任何机关、团体和个人都无权行使,而且不受他们的非法干涉,但是司法机关在审理案件时必须严格依照法律的规定,正确适用法律,不得滥用职权,枉法裁判。 卡尔·马克思这样说过:法官时法律世界的国王,除了法律就没有别的上司。在贯彻司法独立的同时,需要解决以下几个问题:a.要正确处理司法机关与党组织的关系;b.在全社会进行有关树立、维护司法机关权威与尊重、服从司法机关决定的法制教育;c.积极推进司法改革,从制度上保证司法机关依法独立行使审判权和检察权。 7.法治 法治是指依据法律治理。社会主义法治是指社会主义国家的依法治国的原则和方略,与人治相对的治国理论、原则、制度和方法。⑴。法治明确了法律在社会生活中的最高权威性。法治是众人之治,在我国,法律是在党的领导下通过人民代表大会制定的,是党的主张和人民意志的协调和统一。法治的中国一切国家机关、各政党、武装力量、社会团体、企业单位和全体公民都必须在法律的范围内活动,不允许任何人、任何组织凌驾于法律之上。⑵。法治显示了法律介入社会生活的广泛性,在全部国家生活和社会生活中都必须依法办事;⑶。法治还表达了法律调整社会生活的正当性。法治与专制对立与民主联系,维护公民自由,符合社会生活理性化的要求。所以在当今中国建立法治,具有空前的意义,是国家长治久安的正确抉择。1999年第九届全国人大第二次会议进行的宪法修正就明确把“中华人民共和国实行依法治国,建设法治国家”写进了宪法,这一修宪,让法治在我们的社会生活和国家发展中将扮演越来越重要的角色。 8.法治的制度要求 ⑴.对立法者的要求:必须具有完备的法律既系统的法律体系; ⑵.社会主义法治国家必须具有相对平衡和相互制约的符合社会主义制度需要的运行的法律机制。不能对权力有效约束的国家不是法治国家,不能运用法律约束权力的国家也不是法治国家; ⑶.社会主义法治国家必须具有一个独立的具有极大权威性的司法系统和一支高素质的司法队伍; ⑷.最后,社会主义法治国家必须具有健全的律师制度。 9.法治的思想条件 ⑴.法律至上 指法律在社会规范中具有最高权威,所有的社会规范都必须符合法律的精神。法律至上能够维护中央和国家统一领导的权威,又能够使每个人享受到法治社会的公民自由,从而最大限度地调动个人的积极性和主动性; ⑵.权利平等 指全社会范围内人们的平等,承认所有社会成员法律地位平等。有人认为在立法活动中人们是不平等的,其实在我国,通过人民代表大会制度人们选举人民代表,代表他们行使立法权,这就极大程度地体现了人们在立法权地平等; ⑶.权力制约权力 权力制约指所有以国家强制力保证实现地公共权力(主要是国家机构地权力)在运行地同时,必须受到其他公共权力地制约。实践证明,不受制约地权力必然导致腐败,必然被滥用。权力制约就是要依靠法律地规定,界定权力之间地关系,使权力服从法律。在我国,在保证效率地同时,应建立有限政府及责任政府使不可抵挡地历史必然。在我国权力制约地核心使监督。那么,监督体制地完善也势必成为法治建设中一项重要的工作; ⑷.权利本位 综上,当前加强法治建设,须更着眼于制度创新,一定的法治观念必须最终落实到具体的制度上。 10.法与道德 ⑴.法与道德的联系 在人类社会早期,法与道德浑然一体,古代法学家尽量把“道德义务”转化为法律义务,而近代的法学家已将法和道德作为两个不同的社会规范,内容具有重合性,互相补充地调整各种社会关系,但在一点上达成了共识:法律是最低限度地道德。林肯有过这样一句名言:法律是显露地道德,道德是隐藏的法律,也很精辟地阐述了法与道德之间地关系。 ⑵.法与道德的区别 并非所有违法地行为都是违反道德地行为,也不是违反道德地行为即违法行为。但在作为社会规范调整人们地社会生活来讲,法律应处于主导地地位,这也是社会主义法治建设地要求和体现。决不能以道德代替法律,那是历史退步地表现。 11.法与人权 人权就其本来意义来讲,就是人的权利,即所有人可以享受的权利,也是基于人的本性,并在一定历史条件下基于一定的经济结构和文化发展,为了自由生存、自由活动、自由发展以能够真正掌握自己命运而必须平等具有的权利。人权不仅包括生存权和发展权,同时还包括人身权利、政治权利、经济权利和社会权利等各方面的权利。人权的总的价值取向就是人能够真正把握自己的命运,拥有自由拥有平等。 人权首先是一种道德权利,基于人的本性和本质所应该享有的权利,但只有法律将之确认为“法定权利”后才有实现的可能。但这还是不够的,这仅仅为人权的实现提供一种可能性与资格,人权还必须是一种实有权利,一种实实在在的现实权利。从道德观念与价值观念上提出人权的要求并不困难,而要使人权切实实现,成为一种具体的现实权利则要复杂得多。因此,强调人权是一种实有权利,无论在理论上或实践中都有极大意义。 1997年10月,我国签署了《经济、社会、文化权利国际公约》,1998年10月我国政府又签署了《公民权利和政治权利得国际公约》,2004年我国把“国家尊重和保障人权”明确写进了我们得根本法-宪法,这都标志着我国人权建设得重大发展,这也将对我国得社会发展和在国际社会中得重要地位起着举足轻重得作用。 12.宪法的基本原则 ⑴.人民主权原则; ⑵.基本人权原则; ⑶.法治原则; ⑷.权力制约原则 (关于上述原则,在法理部分已经阐述,但在论述时可以指出宪法的这四个基本原则) 13.我国公民基本权利关于平等权的阐述 平等权是我国宪法赋予公民的一项基本权利,是公民一切其他基本权利实现的基本要求,也是我国社会主义法治的基本原则。平等权是指公民依法平等的享有权利,不受任何差别对待,要求国家给予同等保护的权利。 我国现行宪法规定:中华人民共和国公民在法律面前一律平等,这一规定的含义体现如下: ⑴.任何公民都一律平等地享有宪法和法律规定地权利,也都平等地履行宪法和法律规定地义务; ⑵.对任何人得合法权利都一律平等地受到保护,对违法行为一律依法予以追究; ⑶.在法律面前,不允许任何公民享有法律以外地特权,任何人不得强制任何公民承担法律以外的义务,也不得随意剥夺任何人享受的法律权利。 14.刑事诉讼法中关于自身的价值 刑事诉讼法价值包括两方面的内容,一是指刑事诉讼法的工具性价值,二是指自身的价值。 ⑴.以往的理论认为刑事诉讼法存在的目的仅仅是为了保证国家刑罚权的实现,是为了刑法服务,所以刑事诉讼法被认为是刑法的从法,没有自身独立价值。认为刑诉不是作为独立的实体存在的,没有可以在内在品质上找到合理性与正当性的因素,所以往往结果的有效性也就成为评价司法公正的最终标准; ⑵.越来越多的学者认为诉讼法除了具有工具性价值外,还具有其内在价值,而且不依附于刑法的存在而存在。主张用“正当法律程序”或者“程序正义理论”来分析刑事诉讼法的自身价值。“通过程序的正当化”,用程序来吸收当事人的不满。程序的公正是一种看得见的公正,公正不仅应当实现,而且应当以人们看得见的方式实现。如果对程序的公正产生了怀疑,结果即使再好也使司法的公证性受到质疑而影响其内在价值的完美; ⑶.如何协调刑法与刑诉的关系目前存在很大的分歧。我以为两者都很重要,当却主张程序公正优先。在古罗马、英美法系中的普通法中都把程序摆在了第一位。只有程序公正了才能给实体公正提供有效保障。用看得见的公正来证明判决的公证性。当然,实体法也需要公正,而这种公正应该是在程序公正的基础上第二位要考虑的。 15.行政合法性即合理性原则、行政公开原则 ⑴.依法行政(法律优越,法律保留) ①法律优越:禁止行政机关违反现行有效得法律; ②法律保留:行政机关活动应当有明确得法律规定为前提和基础。 ⑵.行政合理原则 ①行政决定应当具有一个有正常理智得普通人所能达到得合理和适当,并能够符合科学公理和社会公德; ②行政合理原则要求行政裁量决定符合并体现法律对裁量权限得授权目的,不得以形式合法背离立法得实质要求; ③行政裁量决定建立于相关因素得正当考虑之上,不得考虑不相关得因素。行政行为做出时涉及到多种因素,行政机关作出行政决定时,应当全面考虑行为所涉及或影响到得因素; ④行政裁量决定应当符合行政法得正当程序和最一般得法律正义要求; ⑶.行政公开原则 公众对行政决策得参与和对行政得监督提供条件,并且使行政活动具有可预见性和确定性,防止行政随意和行政专横。 ①行政依据得公开:行政机关只能执行那些已经公开发表并且易于获得的规定,否则可以认为行政决定没有法定依据; ②行政决策过程的公开:行政机关为公众对行政决策的参与提供必要的信息。 16.关于行政程序 行政程序是行政机关实现其职能、方式、方法得总称,中心是行政决策程序,基本原则是当事人参与原则河保证程序效率原则。基本制度包括:听证制度、信息公开制度、行政调查制度、说明理由制度及行政案卷制度。 ⑴.为了克服民主代议制度得瑕疵和不足而出现 主权属于人民,但通常由民主代议机构行使国家权力,主要方式是创制法律然后由行政机关执法。司法机关司法。执法机关得执法是否符合由民主代议机构进行监督。但事后监督具有滞后性,不能最大程度保护人民得利益,所以努力去寻求一种更加有力得方式来保护权益,所以出现了行政程序,更为现实地保护人民地利益。 ⑵.行政程序地出现鱼政府合理作用日益重要相关 社会地发展从政府上经历了“夜景国家时代”,政府相当于“守夜人”,一般维持治安,只有出现混乱不能解决时政府出面;而现在是“福利时代”,政府必须积极投入社会中,更有力、更大程度地为人民地权利提供更大地方便,所以政府地权力越来越大,但政府地权力过大,人民地权利就可能受到遏制,所以需要行政程序。 总之,采取行政程序既要保护公民地合法权益,限制行政机关地权力,又要保护行政管理地效率。如果行政程序过多、过广、过滥则行政机关地管理无法有效进行,从根本上也会损害公民地合法权益。 17.罪刑法定原则 罪刑法定原则是法治主义在刑法中的直接体现,是法治社会刑法鱼专制社会刑法的根本分野所在。它表明刑法的机能不仅在于保护社会安宁,好要立足于保障人权;刑法不但要面对罪犯以保护国家,也要面对国家保护犯罪人的合法权益。 罪刑法定原则的经典表述:“法无明文规定不为罪,法无明文规定不处罚”。要求罪和刑都必须是法律明确规定的,而不仅仅看行为有什么研的社会危害结果以及社会危害结果是否严重。被告人实施的违法或不道德的行为给社会秩序造成的损害是否定罪处罚,必须以法律规定为准。虽然某种行为的危害程度很大,但是根据刑法分则找不到具体条文所规定的犯罪构成与其相对应,只能按无罪处理。 罪刑法定的要求包括:罪要法定;刑要法定;禁止有罪类推;排斥习惯法(即要实行成文法);排斥绝对不定期刑;禁止重法溯及既往。 18.民法中的基本原则 ⑴.平等原则:身份平等,地位平等;任何自然人、法人在民事法律关系中平等地享有权利,其权利平等地受到保护; ⑵.自愿原则:即民事中的意思自治。当事人可以根据自己的判断去从事民事活动,国家一般不干涉当事人的自由意志,充分尊重当事人的选择,内容包括: ①自己行为:当事人可以根据自己的意愿决定是否参与民事活动,以及参与的内容。行为方式等; ②自己责任:民事主体要对自己参与民事活动导致得结果负担责任。 ⑶.公平原则:在民事活动中以“利益均衡”作为价值判断标准,在民事主体之间发生利益关系摩擦时,以权利和义务是否均衡来平衡双方得利益。 ①是法律适用得原则:当民法规范缺乏规定时,可以根据公平原则来变动当事人之间得权利义务关系; ②是司法原则:法官得司法判决要做到公平合理,当法律缺乏规定时,应根据公平原则做出合理判决。 ⑷.诚实信用原则:要求按照市场制度得互惠刑行事,任何自由都是有限制、受制约得自由。市场经济得复杂性和多变性,使得法律无论如何严谨也无法限制种种弊端,总会表现出某种局限性,但应注意以下几个问题: ①该原则使得法院在审理具体案件中能主动干预民事活动,调整当事人得利益摩擦,使民事法律关系符合正义得要求; ②法院可以根据此原则做出司法解释,填补法律得漏洞; ③该原则位阶高,不确定性强,用而不当也可能会成为司法专横得工具,对该原则得应用必须雨其他原则结合起来综合考虑; 诚实信用原则作为市场交易中得一种道德要求,使市场经济活动中形成得道德准则,它要求人们在不损害他人利益和社会利益得前提下追求自己得利益。诚实信用原则一旦被法律吸收就同时具有了法律得意义,成为一项基本法律原则。因此,诚实信用原则是道德准则得法律化 ,是将道德规则和法律规则合为一体,兼有法律调节合道德调节得双重功能。诚实信用原则得宗旨是体现当事人之间得利益关系合当事人与社会间得利益关系得平衡。在当事人之间得利益关系中,诚实信用原则要求尊重他人利益,以对待自己事务得注意对待他人事务,保证法律关系得当事人都能得到自己应得得利益,不得损人利己,不得通过自己得民事活动损害第三人合社会得利益,必须在权利得法律范围内以符合其社会经济目的得方式行使自己得权利。 ⑸.禁止权利滥用原则:民事主体在进行民事活动时必须正确行使民事权利,如果行使权利损害同样受到保护的他人利益和社会公共利益时,即构成权利滥用。应注意以下几点: ①民事活动首先必须遵守法律; ②法律没有规定的,应当遵守国家政策及习惯; ③应当尊重社会公德,不得损害社会公共利益,不得扰乱社会经济秩序。 19.私有财产的问题 财产权是指公民对其合法财产享有的不受非法侵犯的所有权,是一种社会社会经济权利,是公民根据宪法的规定享有的物质经济利益的权利,是公民实现基本权利的物质保障。 我国现行宪法第13条第1款规定:“公民的合法的私有财产不受侵犯”。合法财产的所有权指公民通过合法劳动或其他方式获得并占有一定财产的权利,包括对生活资料和一定生产资料的所有权。 第15条第2款还规定:“国家依照法律规定保护公民的私有财产权和继承权”。继承权是财产权的延伸,是公民合法财产转移的合法形式。要保护公民的财产权,就应当同时保护公民的继承权。 我国宪法对公民个人财产权及继承权的保护,不仅有助于在市场经济条件下形成平等竞争的环境,使公民的个人财产及时转化为社会财富,而且有助于鼓励拥有财产的公民积极投资,推动市场经济的发展。 20.信赖保护原则 ⑴.信赖保护得内涵 信赖保护原则主要内容为:撤销违法行政行为必须区分负担性和授益性行政行为,对于违法得负担性行政行为,在其相对人已经不可诉请撤回之后,行政机关仍得全部或一部分撤销之。但对于确认权利或法律利益得行政行为原则上不可以撤销,这是因为受益人对此行政行为得信赖应受到保护。 ⑵.信赖保护原则进入行政法领域得理论依据 法律的价值在于保障自由、维护社会秩序、主持社会正义。自由是法律的最高价值目标,法律必须体现自由,保障自由;法律的目的是维护法律秩序的安定性和社会秩序的稳定性;正义是法的基本标准,法律只有符合正义的准则时才是善法、良法。行政许可活动中,行政机关行使国家权力,处于强势地位,而行政相对人处于明显的弱势地位,其权利需要法律明确细致的加以维护,为了实现此目的,信赖保护原则应运而生,同时也是法律上述三种重要价值的体现。 ⑶.信赖保护原则之必要性 政府行为具有确定力、拘束力和执行力,行政决定一旦作出,法律要求相对人对此予以信任和依赖。基于这种信赖因素的存在,法律也理应充分认可并保护相对人基于其信赖所生之利益,禁止政府行为以任何借口任意变更既有行政决定甚至反复无常,哪怕是“有错必纠”也应予以必要的限制。基于这一考虑,行政机关自我纠正错误,主要限于以课以义务为内容的违法行政行为方面,在此领域,即使相对人已逾行政复议或者行政诉令期限,行政机关仍可随时撤销这类违法行政行为;但在授益性行政行为方面,信赖保护原则取代法律优先原则而居于主导地位,因此对于违法的授益性行政行为,尤其违法原因可归责于行政机关的情况下,应当首先着眼于保护受益相对人权利或者利益,行政机关原则上不得径行撤销。如确实出于明显重大公共利益需要而收回该项权利或者利益,也必须给予受益相对人充分补偿,以免让相对人承担政府自身违法的责任。 ⑷.信赖保护原则的具体制度 ①依《行政许可法》第69条第一款规定,行政主体做出授益行为是对相对人利益的一种增加,因此当行政主体发现这一授益行政行为违法而需撤销,明显对相对人不利,根据信赖保护原则,行政主体就不能不受任何限制而主动为之。 ②依据《行政许可法》第81条规定:对于相对人未通过行政许可而获得的非法利益不应予以保护。但是,如果相对人对此种行为并不存在重大过错,而且制止这种行为会使其他善意公民的利益受到损害,那么就应该考虑对善意公民的利益予以信赖保护,采用其他方式解决问题。 ③依据《行政许可法》第8条规定,行政主体最初做出的行政许可行为虽是合法有效的,被许可人也对其产生了值得保护的信赖,但是由于客观情况的变更使得原来合法的行政许可行为显得不适当。行政主体一方和被许可人一方都不存在过错,但出于公共利益的需要,则应变更或撤回原有的行政许可,并基于信赖保护原则给予被许可人一定补偿。 信赖保护原则的首次确立,在我国具有重大现实意义。有利于维护相对人及第三人的合法权益。有利于行政机关及其工作人员树立诚信意识,建立公正、诚信、责任政府。有利于创造良好的投资环境,发展社会主义市场经济体制。有利于依赖保护原则在行政法领域的全面推行。随着信赖保护原则在理论探索和实践运用上的逐步深入,信赖保护原则必将在行政法领域得以全面推行。

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