...What is Reliability? * Consistency * It is not a characteristic of the test but a property of the scores obtained when the test is administered to a particular group of people on a particular occasion under specific conditions * Not the same thing as stability Classical Reliability Theory * By Charles Spearman (1904) * Also called the Theory of true and error scores * It assumed that a person’s observed score on a test is composed of a “true” score plus some unsystematic error of measurement * TRUE SCORE – the average of the scores a person would obtain if he/she took the test an infinite number of times 2 Factors that influence test scores: * 1. Factors that contribute to consistency - consist of those stable attributes of the individual which the examiner is trying to measure (TRUE VARIANCE) * 2. Factors that contribute to inconsistency – these include the characteristics of the individual, test, or situation which have nothing to do with the attribute being measured but affects the scores (ERROR VARIANCE) EQUATION: * X = T + e * Where: * X is the obtained score * T is the true score * e is the errors of measurement * Errors in measurement –represent discrepancies b/n obtained scores and the corresponding true scores (E=X – T) SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR (ERROR VARIANCES) * Item Selection(Intrinsic Error Variance) * Found in the instrument itself * Test items may not be equally fair to all...
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...Sula Cottman Individual Assessment Martin Gilbert Psy.D. Personality/Behavioral Test Administration Reaction Paper: The test that was administered was the Beck youth Inventories Second edition, which is a test that is designed for children and adolescents ages 7 through 18 years. There are 5 self-report inventories which can be used separately or in combination. The goal is to assess symptoms of depression, anxiety, anger, disruptive behavior, and self- concept. The Beck Inventories are validated tools that can be used to measure progress in both research, and clinical Having the opportunity to meet with Christine, and administer the Beck Youth Inventories Second Edition, she appeared to be a bright and intelligent young lady. She seem to be very withdrawn at times. Her counselor and mother discussed the testing process in the beginning, so she was prepared. Keeping Christine engaged at times was somewhat a challenge at times, but knowing some of her home life situations gave me a better way to know how to help her. The test time is 5-10 minutes per inventory, and 30-60 minutes for a full scale. I believe this instrument is a good for measure of self-concept and psychological well-being of children and adolescents. The Beck Inventories can also be used as a measure to identify children and adolescents that are in need of further intervention or evaluation, and as an assessment to the severity of their symptoms. Research shows that there have been many studies...
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...Classical Social Thought (SP 212) Semester 1, 2012-13 Lecturer: Tony Varley Room 309, Second Floor, Árus Moyola Office Hours: Monday: 5-6pm; Wednesday: 4-5pm. Email: tony.varley@nuigalway.ie Course Description: The classical sociological tradition has been heavily dominated by the writings of Marx, Weber and Durkheim. Each of these three theorists has carved out a distinctive approach to the study of society and, in the process, has contributed substantially to our understanding of the transition from pre-modern to modern society. There are many who would argue that the ideas of these three classical figures continue to have much to offer to an understanding of contemporary society and politics. There are several possible ways to study the ideas of Marx, Weber and Durkheim. In this course we will attempt to take a thematic and comparative approach by comparing the views of Marx, Weber and Durkheim on a number of central topics. We will look therefore at their ideas concerning the methods appropriate to the study of society, their views on class and the division of labour, on democratic politics and the state and on culture, religion and ideology. Our discussion will begin with a consideration of what a ‘classical’ tradition might look like in the social sciences; and of why Marx, Weber and Durkheim merit inclusion as the most significant members within such a tradition. For a fuller appreciation of the classical tradition in social theory there is no substitute...
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...The theories on crime deterrence and punishment have changed throughout history. Beccaria, Lombroso and Durkheim are three theorists who have changed the way deterrence, punishment and crime generally is viewed within society. This research paper will first explore each of the theorists’ ideas separately. It will then examine the similarities and differences between each theory. Cesare Beccaria, born in 1738, focused on deterrence as the means of crime prevention. Beccaria fits into the Classical School of thinking, and wrote in a time when torture was used regularly to obtain information from people, and where capital punishment could be used for any type of offence. Punishment was based on a retributive means, where the punishment, or harm, given was equal to the harm caused by the perpetrator. In 1764, Beccaria published a book called “On crimes and Punishments”, where he theorised that this approach did not discourage determined criminals from committing crimes. He suggested, however, by taking away their liberty through incarceration that this would deter other would-be criminals not to commit similar crimes, and would also prevent the perpetrator to recommit the crime again. He based this theory on the utilitarian ideals: “the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number” (Beccaria 1764/1994, p. 227). In his book, Beccaria theorised the deterrence to a crime would increase in effectiveness the faster the punishment was delivered. He also argued that the punishment...
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...Rene Descartes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant. They altered the way in which the social world was viewed and helped pave the way for other classical social theorists to explain the individual’s role in society. Karl Marx, Alexis de Tocqueville, Henri De Saint-Simon, and Emile Durkheim are only the names of a few classical social theorists who set out to explore the role of an individual within society. These men believed that Reason, along with the application of a scientific approach, would be able to positively change the world and break through to a new form of power and authority. Although the ideas and theories of these men give rise to far greater advancement in sociological theory, there is a failure in intuition, and thus, a failure of the classical sociological element. The first section of this paper includes an explanation of classical sociology along with an overview of the theories associated with some of the greatest sociologists of this time. The next section of this paper explores reasons and explanations for the failure of classical social theory and interpretations to why before-mentioned theories were compromised. The final section of this paper summarizes some of the conclusions drawn about the failure of this particular ideology. I. Classical Sociology/Theories Explained Classical sociology includes the idea that people can change the course of history through developmental progress. The object of study was society itself. The development...
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...In my opinion, of the classical sociologists, Emile Durkheim stands out as the most relevant to modern sociology. I believe that his first-hand exposure to societies shift into an industrial nature, although temporally brief, allowed him to a more comprehensive view of how sociology would impact the future. In addition, Durkheim through his writing sought to encompass the large picture of society through the concept of structural functionalism. By analyzing social morality Durkheim attempted to bring a greater understanding to how our day to day interactions were knitted into the social fabric. The rules of how we should and should not behave, have a clear bearing on our interactions with others as well as the development of others perceptions....
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...individual. Symbolic interactionism deals with sense and what others say or do. Functionalism falls into play it's the thought of sociology and how we analyze society as a whole. There are two types of functions, Manifest and Latent. Manifest functions are those known to, and intended by the participants in a social activity. Latent functions are consequences of that activity of which participants are unaware. Merton believed looking into the aspects of social behavior and the features of life. There are many types of theories such as the Feminism and Feminist Theory which is one of the most prominent areas of contemporary sociology. The feminist theorists’ experiences in the women’s movement of the 1960s and the 1970s influenced their work. Rational Choice Theory posits that if you could have only a single variable to explain society. The theorist find few irrational mysteries in life, such as love and self interests. Postmodern theory claims that the classical social thinkers idea has a shape and it leads somewhere such as being...
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...The Study of Crime By Juan Andres Alvarez Crime & Society Instructor: Sara Rogers September 19, 2011 The Study of Crime: Throughout recorded history there have been numerous theories that explain why criminal behavior exists. One of those theories is The Classical Theory of Criminology, it states that the combination of free will, hedonistic decision making and the failure of the social contact in producing criminal behavior. I tend to agree that it all come done to free-will and the desire to commit such acts. In order to comprehend the study of crime we must first learn to prevent crime. There are many crime prevention programs that have work others have not. Unlike these theories many of these programs have not yet been evaluated or hold enough creditable scientific evidence to draw positive conclusions. Enough evidence is available, however, to create provisional lists of what might work; what hasn’t, and what’s potential to work in the foreseeable future. In order to formulate a possible list of programs in our neighborhoods we must continue to study of crime and its many possibilities; and to purse and punish those criminals that break the law and bring them to justice. We as society should focus on not just what type of crimes are been committed or to what rate they are been committed but we should focus our attention on the aspect of crime that has not been studied before the learning to find peace amongst ourselves. Before we can learn to find...
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...This essay intends to explicitly compare Karl Marx and Emile David Durkheim ideas on religion from a sociological and functionalist perspective. Functionalists’ belief that religion is beneficial for both the community and its members e.g. it unifies the society which in turn gives each individual member a source of support when they need it. It will begin with their brief historical backgrounds, definition of religion as well as their similarities and differences in studying it. Karl Marx Marx was born in Prussia on May 5, 1818. He began exploring sociopolitical theories at university among the Young Hegelians. He became a journalist, and his socialist writings would get him expelled from Germany and France. In 1848, he published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels and was exiled to London, where he wrote the first volume of Das Kapital and lived the remainder of his life (Engels, 1869). Marx is considered as one of the founders of economic history and sociology. Emile Durkheim According to Jones (1986) “David Emile Durkheim was born in France, on April 15, 1857 and raised in a Jewish family with his father as a rabbi. Emile was, thus destined for the rabbinate, and a part of his early education was spent in a rabbinical school” (p.12). Durkheim is considered the father of modern sociology and well known for his work on Division of Labour in 1912. Definition of Religion Both Marx and Durkheim have rather contrasting definitions of what religion is with the former...
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...CLASSICAL V. POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY There are two schools of thoughts when dealing with criminology, they are; classical and positivist criminology. The two meaning entirely the opposite, classical criminology is based on committing crimes by “free will” while positivist criminology deals with committing crime due to the impact of one’s’ environment. Cesare Beccaria helped make the present day Judicial System what it is; his thought process was in the beliefs of the classical theory. The Classical criminology theory is established on the thought process that committing a crime is a “choice” that individuals make on their own. It is only human nature to know the difference of right from wrong; the classical view depicts that one “knowingly” decides to do wrong not caring the consequences. This is where Cesare Beccaria comes into play, he decided that “do the crime, pay the time”, he felt that one’s punishment should be as just and fair pertaining to the crime itself; this is why all punishments have certain mandatory sentences imposed on them. Beccaria however, did not believe in capital punishment, he felt has though that it is not man’s job to inflict death upon another. Casare Lombroso is commended on creating this type of criminology notated as positivist; he unlike Beccaria did believe in capital punishment, and disagreed with Beccaria's perceptions on punishments being fit for the type of crime committed, and stated that instead, the punishments should...
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...knowledge of societal and cultural development by looking beyond economic and conflict theories for understanding other positions regarding social advancement. The Breadth Component studies societal and cultural development in terms of evolutionary, cyclical, and fundamentalist theories and demonstrates why it is important to looking beyond the popularly accepted knowledge about social development represented by economic and conflict theory. This approach provides a more robust generalization that more adequately describes social advancement, and concludes that classical researchers did not consider leadership as a social segment to be studied, that influences societal and cultural development. Leadership understanding of societal and cultural development is critical for enabling them to lead positive social change. ABSTRACT Depth The Depth section compares modern research in societal and cultural development to the theories of classical researchers in order to further develop the findings of the classical study, and to determine if leadership consideration has been addressed in modern times. The study shows that the theories of classical researchers are sufficiently robust to support a consistent, continued basis for understanding societal and cultural development into modernity. This study broadens the Breadth section presentation, and demonstrates that modern researchers continue the classical paradigm, adding depth and...
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...This essay intends to explicitly compare Karl Marx and Emile David Durkheim ideas on religion from a sociological and functionalist perspective. Functionalists’ belief that religion is beneficial for both the community and its members e.g. it unifies the society which in turn gives each individual member a source of support when they need it. It will begin with their brief historical backgrounds, definition of religion as well as their similarities and differences in studying it. Karl Marx Marx was born in Prussia on May 5, 1818. He began exploring sociopolitical theories at university among the Young Hegelians. He became a journalist, and his socialist writings would get him expelled from Germany and France. In 1848, he published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels and was exiled to London, where he wrote the first volume of Das Kapital and lived the remainder of his life (Engels, 1869). Marx is considered as one of the founders of economic history and sociology. Emile Durkheim According to Jones (1986) “David Emile Durkheim was born in France, on April 15, 1857 and raised in a Jewish family with his father as a rabbi. Emile was, thus destined for the rabbinate, and a part of his early education was spent in a rabbinical school” (p.12). Durkheim is considered the father of modern sociology and well known for his work on Division of Labour in 1912. Definition of Religion Both Marx and Durkheim have rather contrasting...
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...Essay on Durkheim’s Theory of Division of Labour by Sikandar Khan Essay on Durkheim’s Theory of Division of Labour – Durkheim’s “Theory of Division of Labour” is often regarded as his major contribution to the field of sociological thought. Durkheim’s doctoral thesis, “Division of Labour in Society” – 1.893, is his first major book. In this, the influence of Auguste Comte is clearly evident. The theme of this book is the relationship between individuals and society or the collectivity. It is indeed a classic study of social solidarity. In this book he reacted against the view that modern industrial society could be based simply upon agreement between individuals motivated by self-interest and without any prior consensus. He agreed that the kind of consensus in modern society was different from that in simpler social systems. But he saw both of these as two types of social solidarity. In his famous work “The Division of Labour in Society” Durkheim tried to determine the social consequences of the division of labour in modern societies. A major theme in all Durkheim’s writings is the importance of shared social norms and values in maintaining social cohesion and solidarity. He argued that the nature of this social solidarity depends on the extent of the division of labour. Meaning of Division of Labour: The concept of “Division of Labour” has been used in three ways: (i) in the sense of the technical division of labour, it describes the production process; ...
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...Criminal Theories There is no single definitive answer to what causes crime or an absolute criminological theory. Many ideas have developed, and others have evolved over time to explain criminal behavior. In 1895, Emile Durkheim theorized that crime is normal. He stated that “Crime is present not only in the majority of societies of one particular species but all societies of all types. There is no society that is not confronted with the problem of criminality. Its form changes; the acts thus characterized are not the same everywhere; but, everywhere and always, there have been men who have behaved in such a way as to draw upon themselves penal repression” (Robinson, 2013). Modern criminologists combine the most useful aspects of sociology, psychology, anthropology, and biological theories to improve their understanding of criminal behavior. Based on my prior educational exposure, experiences, and observation, the two psychological theories that I believe are the most accurate are the Behaviorist/Social Learning Theory and the Cognitive/Social Cognitive Theory. The Behaviorist/social learning theory posits that “people are equal in their underlying...
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...relations of a society or community of people. -refers to acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a positive way [pic] [pic][pic] [pic] Social Change could be: o Slow, gradual, incremental, and evolutionary (in this it might be barely noticeable) o Fast, radical, sudden, and revolutionary (it might even take people by surprise) o Wide in scope, affecting all people in a society o Limited in scope, affecting only a small number of people Four major Theories of Social Change: 1. The Evolutionary Theory - explain how one social form evolves into another - society progresses from a simple beginning to a more complex form; from homogeneity to heterogeneity; from archaic to civilized; from primitive to modern; from rural to urban [pic] [pic] Classical evolutionary theorists: Emile Durkheim Herbert Spencer Modern evolutionists: Leslie White Julian Steward Gerhard Lenski ❖ Emile Durkheim [pic] -proposed that simple societies progress to complex ones by the action of social forces a. Mechanical Solidarity Simple societies have relatively homogenous culture, undifferentiated structure and minimal division of labor. People share a common set of values, beliefs, customs, and mores which provide the chief source of solidarity b. Organic Solidarity As population grows, division of labor and specialization is needed. More formal means to hold the society together are developed such as the central...
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