HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

Instructional Overview

The instructor may, by way of introduction, make a few comments regarding the importance and relevance of understanding the historical background of a profession and then briefly highlight the important points in Chapter One, adding any statements from his or her own background plus any appropriate comments.

The major points of this chapter (which could be covered in an instructor’s introduction of the chapter) are as follows:

1. Occupations, including counseling, develop because there is a need.

2. The need for such personal assistance - advice, guidance, counseling - has existed, and in various ways been attended to, over the ages.

3. Many of the well-known historical figures (e.g. Plato, Aristotle, Charlemagne, Rousseau, and Thomas Jefferson) have expressed “counseling” points of view.

4. Psychology emerged as a field of study and psychiatry as a specialized branch of medicine in the late 1800s.

5. The development of programs of guidance and counseling in American education began in the years just prior to World War I. Frank Parsons is usually credited with much of the success of its early beginnings.

6. Parsons considered three factors necessary for the wise choice of a vocation. They were:
(a) a clear understanding of self; (b) a knowledge of the requirements and conditions for success, compensation, and opportunities in different careers; and (b) true reasoning on the relationships between (a) and (b).

7. Other influences on the development of the counseling movement were:

a. the development of standardized tests appropriate for assessment of intelligence and other characteristics of youth. b. the renewed interest in mental health as a result of Clifford Beers’ writings. c. the progressive education movement of the 1920s and 1930s.

8. CHAPTER 1 – HISTORY OF AND TRENDS IN COUNSELING

Definition of Counseling * Focus on growth and wellness and the remediation of mental disorders. * Grew out of the guidance movement, in opposition to traditional psychotherapy. * Guidance * The process of helping people makes important choices that affect their lives. * Has more of a historical significance than present-day usage. * Guidance focuses on helping individuals choose what they value most, while counseling helps them make changes. * Early work in guidance occurred in schools and career centers where students were helped to make decisions, such as career choices. An unequal relationship was between an adult and student. * Helps to gain an understanding of self and own world through guidance, such as from parents, ministers, scout leaders, and coaches. * Psychotherapy * Therapy initially focused on serious internal conflicts. * Emphasized past more than present, insight more than change, detachment of the therapist, and the therapist as an expert. * Long-term relationships (20 to 40 sessions over 6 months to 2 years) focused on reconstructive change. [Short-term relationship = 8 to 12 sessions over less than 6 months.] * Seen as more of an inpatient treatment rather than outpatient. * In more modern times, psychotherapy and counseling have become blurred with professions who determine whether the client receives counseling or psychotherapy. * Counseling * In 2010, 29 counseling associations accepted a definition of counseling as follows
Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals (http:// www.counseling.org/20-20/index.aspx). * Important points for counselors and consumers to realize: * Counseling deals with wellness, personal growth, career, and mental health concerns. * In other words, the internal concerns and concerns of relationship with others are related in counseling to finding balance and adjustment for the client in certain settings including schools, family, and career. * Counseling is conducted with persons who are considered to be functioning well and those who are having more serious problems. * In other words, clients may be seen for many reasons, including developmental issues (i.e., aging) or situational concerns (i.e., like a break-up) that require assistance in gaining adjustment or remediation. Problems are usually short-term, but may require longer treatment, especially when the client has a disorder included in the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). * Counseling is theory based. Counselors may glean from different counseling theories. These theories include theoretical approaches from cognitive, affective, behavioral, and systemic perspectives. Applications can be made to individuals, groups, and families. * Counseling is a process that may be developmental or interventional. Reaching goals, making change, (or both) may be the focus of counseling. * Counseling specialty: specialized areas within counseling, such as school or college counseling, marriage and family counseling, mental health counseling, gerontological counseling for the aging population, rehabilitation counseling, addiction and offender counseling, and career counseling. (http://counseling.org) Requirements for general counseling must be met before becoming a specialist. History of Counseling
 Before 1900 o Counseling developed in the late 1890s and early 1900s. Sigmund Freud’s ideas were known at this time. His approach to therapy is where many lay people get their ideas of psychological counseling.
 See http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/freud.html, http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/freud.htm. o Before 1900, most counseling was in the form of advice or information. o In the US, counseling developed out of humanitarian concern to improve lives during the Industrial Revolution of the late 1800s. o Also, counseling was influenced by the social welfare reform movement (child labor), public education, and various changes in population makeup (immigration). o Most counselors were teachers and social reformers: most were involved in child welfare, educational or vocational guidance, and legal reform.
 1900-1909 (The Gilded Age) http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JAX/is_1_50/ai_78398529) o Three leaders in counseling emerged: Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis, and Clifford Beers. o Frank Parsons: “Father of Guidance”
 Focused on growth and prevention, multiple disciplines – lawyer, engineer, college teacher, and social worker before he became a social reformer and worked with youth.
 Best known for founding Boston’s Vocational Bureau in 1908, beginning of the institutionalization of vocational guidance.
 Theorized that choosing a vocation was a matter of relating three factors: knowledge of work, knowledge of self, and a matching of the two.
 Procedures included a lengthy questionnaire that asked about: experiences, preferences, and morals.
 Book Choosing a Vocation (1909) published a year after his death was influential in the designation of vocational counselors in Boston and spread to 35 cities by 1910. o Jesse B. Davis – first to set up a system for guidance programs in the public schools.
 Superintendent of the Grand Rapids, Michigan school system; suggested in 1907 that English teacher teach lessons in guidance once a week to build character and prevent problems. He believed that proper guidance would help cure ill of American society.
 Hence, school guidance was developed: a preventive educational means of teaching students how to deal effectively with life events. o Clifford Beers – A Mind That found Itself (1908)
 Beers wrote a book about his hospitalizations for depression. He found the conditions in the mental institution unacceptable and exposed them in his book.
 Beers used his book to make a platform to reform the treatment of the mentally ill. He also solicited funds from well-known people such as the Fords and Rockefellers to encourage the reform.
 1910s – Three events impacted development of counseling o 1913, founding of the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA). NVGA began publishing a bulletin in 1915 which evolved into the Journal of Counseling and Development. o 1917, passage of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provided funding for public schools to support vocational education. o During WWI the military began to use testing and placement practices to categorize military personnel, hence came the stanine system for intelligence, as well as the Army Alpha and Army Beta intelligence tests. Psychometrics (psychological testing) became popular through this era.
 1920s – A quiet era for counseling o Education courses focused on vocational counseling, especially with war veterans. o First certification of counselors in Boston and New York. o First stands for the preparation and evaluation of occupational materials. o Publication of new psychological instruments such as Strong Vocational Interest Inventory in 1927. o Abraham and Hannah Stone’s 1929 establishment of the first marriage and family counseling center in NYC marked the beginning of marriage and family counseling.
 1930s o Great Depression influenced the need for helping strategies and counseling methods that related to employment. o First theory of counseling, E.G. Williamson, John Darley, Donald Paterson, et al., at the University of Minnesota. Williamson modified Parson’s theory and used it with students and the unemployed. Was a counselor-centered approach (counselor in control of sessions giving direction to where counseling is going and what goals will be attained), known as the Minnesota point of view and trait-factor counseling.
 Traits (aptitudes, interests, personalities, achievements) could be integrated in a variety of ways to form factors (constellations of individual characteristics).
 Counseling was a problem-solving, scientific method tailored to each client helping him/her to stop obstructive thinking/behavior and become a better decision maker. o Edward Thorndike, known for Law of Effect, challenged the vocational emphasis of the guidance movement. John Brewer completed the challenge and published his book titled Education as Guidance in 1932 proposing that every teacher be a counselor and that guidance be incorporated in the school curriculum as a subject. He believed that focus should be on preparing students to live outside the school environment. o 1938, Congress passed the George-Dean Act that created the Vocational Education Division of the US Office of Education and an Occupational Information and Guidance Service. Further, evolved the creation of state supervisors of guidance positions in state departments of education. Also, the US Employment Service was established and published the first Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) in 1939 (a source of career information coded occupations).
 1940s o Carl Rogers (1942) publication of Counseling and Psychotherapy emphasized the importance of “client-centered” counseling (client gives direction and sets goals for therapy). He believed if right conditions (unconditional acceptance, active listening, and genuineness and congruency) were available to the client; the client would become more congruent and know him/herself better. The therapist served as a mirror to the client. Thus, a shift began from guidance to counseling. o WWII brought about the need for counselors and psychologists to train specialists for the military and for industry. Women began to work because of necessity and traditional occupational roles began to be questioned. o George-Barden Act of 1946 provided vocational education funds through the US Office of Education for counselor training institutes. The VA funded the training of counselors and psychologists by granting stipends and paid internships for students engaged in graduate study. It also coined the term “counseling psychologist.”
 1950s o American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) founded
 The APGA grew out of the Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations (CGPA) operating from 1934 to 1951; lacked power to commit its members. APGA formed in 1952 organized groups interested in guidance, counseling, and personnel matters. O American School Counselor Association (ASCA)  ASCA was chartered in 1953 and joined APGA as the fifth member. o Division 17 (Counseling Psychology) within the American Psychological Association (APA) changed its name and dropped any reference to guidance.
 The above three groups desired to work with the “normal” population rather than clinical population and focused on both vocational counseling and humanistic psychotherapy. o National Defense Education Act (NDEA), 1958
 The NDEA was enacted following the Soviet Union’s first space satellite launch, Sputnik I. The purpose was to identify scientifically and academically talented students and promote their development. * Act provided funds through Title V-A for upgrading school counseling programs. * Title V-B offered funds to establish counseling and guidance institutes. o New guidance and counseling theories
 The shift to applied behavioral theories, e.g. Joseph Wolpe’s systematic desensitization, became influential.
 See http://www.guidetopsychology.com/sysden.htm
 Cognitive theories, e.g. Albert Ellis’s rational emotive therapy (RET or REBT; B = behavioral)
 See http://www.threeminutetherapy.com/rebt.html, and
 Eric Berne’s transactional analysis [See http://www.emotional-literacy.com/ta.htm], as well as learning theory, and self-concept theory.
 1960s o At the beginning of the 60s the focus was on counseling as a developmental profession. Gilbert Wren (1962) set the tone with his book The Counselor in a Changing World. The impact of Wren’s book lessened with other influences of the 60s: o The Vietnam War, civil rights movement, and the women’s movement all influenced the focus of counseling and issues in counseling. o Humanistic (focuses on the client’s ability to become his/her best and self-actualize) counseling became prominent due to individuals like Abraham Maslow, Dugald Arbuckle, and Sidney Jourard. Counseling shifted from one-on-one counseling to group therapy. Also behavioral counseling (self-control and regulation, for example) became influential. o 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act opened up job opportunities for counselors to focus on abuse, addiction and marriage and family counseling by putting mental health centers into communities. o APGA published first code of ethics for counselors in 1961 and APA’s division 17 began publishing a professional journal in 1969, The Counseling Psychologist. o ERIC clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services (CAPS) established in 1966.
 1970s o Diversity in Counseling Setting
 Mental health centers and community agencies began to employ counselors following the decline and need of counselors in the educational setting.
 Specialized training began to be offered in counselor education programs.
 The term “community counselor” was coined to describe this type of counselor.
 Formation of the Mental Health Counseling Association (AMHCA) as a division within APGA. o Helping Skills Programs
 Helping skills programs of Robert Carkhuff, Allen Ivey, et al. focused on teaching basic counseling skills to professionals and non-professionals by o State Licensure
 Virginia was the first state to adopt a professional counselor licensure law in 1976. Arkansas and Alabama followed in the 70s. o A Strong APGA
 The APGA built its headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia.
 A division of APGA, Association of Counselor Educators and Supervisors (ACES), outlined the standards for a master’s degree in counseling.
 ACES approved guidelines for the doctorate in counseling in 1977.
 Membership increased within APGA and four new divisions were added.
 1980s o Standardization of Training and Certification
 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) was formed in 1981 as an affiliate organization of APGA. In 1987, CACREP achieved membership in the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation (COPA), bringing it into a position of power equal to the APA. CACREP standardized graduate programs in counseling.
 In 1983 the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) began to certify counselors on the national level. Eight subject areas were included in a standardized exam: 1) human growth and development, 2) social and cultural foundations, 3) helping relationships, 4) groups, 5) lifestyle and career development, 6) appraisal, 7) research and evaluation, and 8) professional orientation. To become a national certified counselor (NCC), the National Counselor Exam must be passed and experiential and character references must be ascertained. o Counseling as a Distinct Profession
 In 1983, APGA changed its name to the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD) to replace its outdated name referring to personnel and guidance.
 Chi Sigma Iota was formed in 1985 by Thomas J. Sweeney to promote excellence in the counseling profession by setting up an international academic and professional honor society.
 AACD made membership services such as liability insurance policies available. o More Diversification of Counseling
 As counselors in educational settings continued, community /agency counselors increased dramatically. Thus, the Association for Adult Development and Aging (AADA) and the International Association for Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC) were formed. Many other interest groups developed. o Increased Emphasis on Human Growth and Development
 New emphasis on Erik Erikson’s stages of development began.
 Increased emphasis on the elderly resulted in the Association for Adult Aging and Development (AAAD).
 Attention began being given to gender issues. Carol Gilligan emphasized the moral values in females and introduced the feminist theory into counseling forcing the examination of gender differences.
 Emphasis on moral values developed; e.g., Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Cognitive ability and empathy were found to be correlated in counselor education research.
 Multicultural issues became an additional focus and resulted in the refinement of the AACD division Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD).
 1990s o The AACD changed its name in 1992 to the American Counseling Association (ACA) to fully encompass its mission. o Counseling was recognized by the Center for Mental Health Services and by the National Institute of Mental Health as a primary mental health profession. o Writing of the multicultural counseling standards by Sue, Arredondo, and McDavis (1992) set the stage for multicultural counseling. o Increase in managed health care began causing the decline in independent counselor practitioners and the number of sessions offered to clients under managed health care plans. o Emphasis on social factors became more important to the development of mental health and prevention. o The National Academy of Clinical Mental Health Counselors merged with NBCC. o Growth in CACREP accredited programs.
Current Trends in the New Millennium – Over 60 years of service under ACA
 Dealing with Violence, Trauma, and Crises o New emphasis began in training counselors to respond to trauma and tragedies due to school shootings, the Oklahoma City bombing, and 9/11’s terrorist attack. Focus on the treatment of ASD (acute stress disorder) and PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). ASD lasts for about a month and PTSD includes flashbacks and may last for years.
 The Challenge of Managed Care o Managed care companies determine how health care providers deliver services and what rights and sources of help consumers have to receive regarding treatment. A primary physician must make arrangements for the client. Reimbursement through insurance is limited, as well as the number of sessions. o Ethical concerns under managed care arise.
 Promoting Wellness o Emphasis of wellness in counseling has increased including: physical, intellectual, social, psychological, emotional, and environmental wellness.
 Concern for Social Justice o Counselors of today are drawn to social justice due to the interest in welfare of people in society. Major elements of a social justice approach include the identification and challenge of environmental limits and freeing clients from oppressive actions. o Counselors are taking an active role in social justice by advocating for the profession and for client, along with community outreach, and public policy making. o Counselors must possess skills and have commitment to social issues to be effective as advocates. o Leading advocacy groups within the ACA include Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ) and ACES. Outside the ACA leading groups include Chi Sigma Iota (Counseling Academic and Professional Honor Society International) and NBCC.
 Greater Emphasis on the Use of Technology o Technology promotes dialogue between counselors. Websites are utilized with counseling organizations, counselor education programs, and individual counselors. Additionally, on-line counseling journals are available along with research information, the first being the Journal of Technology in Counseling; http://jtc.colstate.edu/WhatisJTC.htm). o Internet counseling is controversial. Ethical and legal risks include problems with confidentiality, the handling of emergencies, the lack of nonverbal information, crossing state judicial lines, the lack of outcome research, technology failures, and difficulties with rapport. o Counseling services are offered across the Internet (e.g., suicide prevention) and through the telephone (e.g., crisis counseling). Telephone counselors can use Web technology to enhance their services if NBCC guidelines for Internet counseling are followed. o Clients who may be well served through the use of online counseling are those who are geographically isolated, the physically disabled, those who would not ordinarily seek counseling, and those who are more prone to writing than speaking. o Counselor competencies for technology use include proficiency in word processing programs, audiovisual equipment, e-mail, the Internet, Listservs, and CD-ROM databases. However, the Internet, telephone, and other technologies will never fully replace face-to-face counseling.
 Leadership o A need exists for counselors to develop their leadership, planning, and advocacy skills. Counselors are challenged in agencies and schools to move beyond clinical supervision and into managerial leadership roles. The ACA and Chi Sigma Iota are focused on building leadership skills through workshops and seminars. * One area of leadership, strategic planning, involves envisioning the future and making preparations to meet proposed needs. This skill is usually accomplished in a group and involves hard data and anticipations.
 Identity o The ACA has not been as successful as the medical field to diversify its counseling tracks into separate areas of practice. However, divisions within ACA have continued to hold strong membership. Nineteen divisions and affiliates operate under ACA’s structure (see www.counseling.org).