...DNA & RNA DNA Replication is semi conservative; meaning each strand of DNA is a template for new strands of DNA. DNA helicase is an enzyme that starts the process of DNA replication by opening the double helix stranded unwinding it. The Single stranded binding protein helps prevent DNA from attaching during the replication process( Hudon-Miller, 2013). DNA polymerase III is an enzyme that produces new strand, only reads in the 3’ to 5’ and adds new DNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction by forming replication bubbles and attaching at each replication fork. Because it can only add nucleotides to the 3’ direction there would be 2 different kinds of replication stands. The leading strand would be continuous towards the replication fork needing 1 RNA primer to initiate synthesis and the lagging strand would be fragmented away from the replication fork needing RNA primer to synthesize multiple times. Once RNA primer completes synthesis in the new DNA strand, DNA polymerase I fills the fragments with new nucleotides. DNA ligase is part of the last step of DNA. Its enzymes seal the Okazaki fragments together in creating a new DNA strand (Ahern & Rajogopal). In order to create new proteins for our bodies to perform its functions, DNA would have to go through a process called Transcription. Transcription is a process in which DNA is copied by mRNA. This takes place in the nucleus of the cell.DNA uses the help of RNA polymerase II which is an enzyme that initiates the synthesis...
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...Biochemistry GRT 1 DNA/RNA Katharine K WGU Biochemistry GRT 1 DNA/RNA A. DNA Replication B. The Role of the Ligase Enzyme in the replication of DNA C. The Role of mRNA D. Death Cap Mushrooms The Death Cap Mushroom is an extremely toxic mushroom that is responsible for the majority of the mushroom poisoning deaths in the world. This fungi is also known as Amanita phalloides and is mainly found in Europe. It is found growing on the ground in woodlands and mountains. This particular fungi contains two types of toxins, both are “ring-shaped peptides.” These toxins are amatoxins and phallotoxins and they target mainly the liver of the human body when ingested. RNA polymerase II is an essential enzyme in helpingour bodies produce messenger RNA (mRNA) as well as other RNA’s. The virulent function of the mushroom acts by stopping the movement of RNA polymerase II, transcription does not occur and therefore it does not produce mRNA. The amatoxin impedes RNA polymerase at both the initiation and the elongation phase. The translation phase will not happen now due to there being no mRNA available to make proteins. Protein synthesis cannot happen, cell metabolism stops and so the cell dies. After human consumption of the mushroom, it initially can cause nausea and vomiting, but soon it affects the liver. The liver is the first organ to be damaged then the kidneys. Electrolyte imbalances begin and there would be no proteins like collagen to help with cell structure...
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...CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DSCUSSION Table 1: A table showing the acceptability of Jute Ice Cream using Treatment 1 (250g of Jute leaves). Treatment 1(250g of Jute leaves) | NA1 | SA2 | A3 | VA4 | HA5 | TPP | TR | M | REMARKS | Palatability | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 15 | 7 | 28 | 5 | 25 | 70 | 18 | 3.89 | VERY ACCEPTABLE | Aroma | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 8 | 32 | 8 | 45 | 83 | 18 | 4.61 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | Texture | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 10 | 40 | 6 | 30 | 76 | 18 | 4.22 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | The above table shows that the palatability is VERY ACCEPTABLE with a mean of 3.89. The aroma is HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE a mean of 4.61. The texture is also HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE with a mean of 4.22. Table 2: A table showing the acceptability of Jute Ice Cream using Treatment 2 (300g of Jute leaves). Treatment 2(300g of Jute leaves) | NA1 | SA2 | A3 | VA4 | HA5 | TPP | TR | M | REMARKS | Palatability | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 20 | 13 | 65 | 85 | 18 | 4.72 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | Aroma | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 12 | 48 | 5 | 25 | 76 | 18 | 4.22 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | Texture | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 24 | 12 | 60 | 84 | 18 | 4.67 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | The above table shows that the palatability is HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE with a mean of 4.72. The aroma and texture are also HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE with means of 4.22 and 4.67 respectively. Table 3: A table showing the acceptability of Jute Ice Cream using Treatment 3 (500g of Jute leaves). Treatment 3(300g of Jute leaves) | NA1...
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...DNA vs. RNA Dustin D. Napier Computer Science Degree Grantham University DNA vs. RNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, while RNA is ribonucleic acid. DNA is a double strand and RNA is a single strand. Although DNA and RNA both carry genetic information, there are quite a few differences between them. The following information will describe the differences between DNA and RNA DNA DNA contains long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms. DNA is a double strand that has a long chain of nucleotides. DNA has a composition of bases and sugars. They are deoxyribose sugar, phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine bases. DNA is also self-replicating. DNA has adenine-thymine also known as AT and guanine-cytosine also known as GC. DNA has a bond that make it very stable. The bond is a C-H bond. DNA has small grooves that serve as protection and minimal space for enzymes to attach to the strand its self. DNA is vulnerable to Ultraviolet that would cause damage to the strand. RNA RNA transfers the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome and that produces proteins. RNA transfers genetic information in some specimens. RNA in some cases is what molecule was used to store genetic blue prints in prime organisms. RNA is a single strand and the helix consists of short chains of nucleotides. RNA has a composition of bases and sugars. They are ribose sugar, phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine...
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...Comparison chart | DNA | RNA | Definition: | A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms | RNA, single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to the ribose. RNA molecules are involved in protein synthesis and sometimes in the transmission of genetic information. | Job/Role: | Medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information | The main job of RNA is to transfer the genetic code need for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. this process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins could never be made. | Stands for: | DeoxyriboNucleicAcid | RiboNucleicAcid | Predominant Structure: | Typically a double- stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides | A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological roles and has a shorter chain of nucleotides | Pairing of Bases: | A-T(Adenine-Thymine), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine) | A-U(Adenine-Uracil), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine) | Stability: | Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive because of C-H bonds. Stable in alkaline conditions. DNA has smaller grooves where the damaging enzyme can attach which makes it harder for the enzyme to attack DNA. | Ribose sugar is more reactive because of C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds. Not stable in alkaline conditions. RNA on the other hand has larger grooves which...
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...Comparing and Contrasting DNA and RNA DNA, also known as deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, also known as ribonucleic acid, are two topics in science that are compared and contrasted the most. DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids that are found in all living cells even though they have many different characteristics. Throughout this paper, the two molecules will be compared and contrasted thoroughly. To begin, DNA and RNA are very much alike in plenty of ways. For example, both nucleic acids are made up of monomers called nucleotides. The two acids are both necessities for the cell to produce the proteins it needs. DNA and RNA both have phosphate groups called phosphoric acids. Another similarity is that both of the acids contain pentose sugars. Lastly, found in both DNA and RNA are bases called adenine, cytosine, and guanine and in both of the acids the bases called cytosine and guanine are paired together....
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...contrast DNA and RNA. Discuss why humans did not evolve with one central repository of DNA, but rather it is replicated throughout the body? Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): It is helical double stranded nucleic acid made of complementary purine and pyramidines supported by deoxy ribose sugars and phospodiester structures. (5 Prime to 3 prime). Eukaryotic DNA material. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): It is a single nucleic acid supported by adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil supported by ribose sugars. mRNA, rRNA and tRNA. Double standed RNA Viruses are also with RNA as genetic material a) Makes a complementary strand of RNA ---------> primase Primase is an RNA polymerase that reads DNA and synthesize complememntary RNA strand (mRNA). b) Allows DNA to unwind to reduce tension. -------> helicase (Helicases can unwind double stranded DNA) c) Forms a phosphodiester bond between two Okazaki fragments. -----> ligase DNA ligase is an enzyme, which seals the breaks and fills in gaps in a DNA strand during replication process. D) Removes primers -----------------------> DNA Pol I (DNA polymerase I). DNA polymerase removes primers by a process called nick translaton. Double stranded RNA is predominantly present in viruses. In this type of RNA, two complementary strands are found with a helix that triggers RNA interference and interferon response in eukaryotes. ------------------------------------------------- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is double-stranded, RNA (ribonucleic...
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...Biochemistry GRT-1 (Roche Diagnostics PCR Diagnostic Kits, United States of America, 2014) The Role of DNA and RNA in the transmission of information within the cell Kristie French, BS, RN, PCCN Morganfield— Kentucky T: 270-952-5228 DD: 812-485-4649 E: kfrenc3@wgu.edu Summary This report has been prepared to discuss the role of DNA and RNA in the transmission of genetic information within the cell. The report is broken down into four sections in order to illustrate this information. Section 1 discusses and illustrates DNA replication at the biochemical level. This section includes a diagram that with representation of the components involved. Section 2 discusses and illustrates the role of the enzyme Ligase in the replication of DNA. Section 3 illustrates and discusses the role of mRNA in transcription and translation. Finally, Section 4 discussed the effects of RNA polymerase inhibition related to the poisonous effects of the death cap mushroom. Contents Summary 2 DNA Replication at the Molecular Level 4 Diagram 1: Process of DNA Replication at the biochemical level 4 Components of DNA Replication 4 The function of enzymes in DNA Replication 4 Enzymes involved in DNA Replication 4 The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA 5 Diagram 2: The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA 5 Components involved 5 The role of mRNA in transcription and translation 6 Diagram 3: The role of mRNA...
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... Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is found in basically all organisms including humans. It is the hereditary material that basically every person has and is found in both the cell nucleus and the mitochondria. Most of a person’s DNA is nuclear DNA because it is found in the nucleus; small portions of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria, giving this type the name mtDNA or mitochondrial DNA. DNA has many properties; one of its most important is that it can copy itself. When this process occurs, the double helix strands of DNA are used as a pattern for replicating the base sequences. This is crucial during cell division due to the imperative need for each new cell to carry a precise copy of the DNA found in the old cell. Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U) are five out of about three billion chemical bases that store DNA’s coded information; over 99% of these bases have been found to be consistent in all people. The sequence of the bases is extremely important because the order that they are found in, reveals the information necessary and accessible for creating and upholding an organism. A simple way to comprehend this explanation is that DNA works in similar ways to alphabet letters; letters are put in certain orders to form a word or sentence and if they were to be mixed up, they would have a much different meaning. DNA is composed of two long strands that form a spiral made up of nucleotides called...
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...this investigation, you will learn how to “decode” the message in this piece of DNA (the gene) and to “translate” this message into the correct protein. The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1956 and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970. Variables: Control setup: Original DNA strand. Independent variable: The base pairing. Dependent variable: vasopressen protein Hypothesis: NONE Materials: pen or pencil, paper and lab sheet Procedures: Part A: • Make a data table and copy the letters into a section labeled DNA. • Create three more sections and label mRNA, tRNA, and amino acids. • Write down the letters that corresponds to the original DNA. Part B: • Starting from AUG in the RNA section, cirlce AUG and from there on put slashes every three letters. • Using figures 2 and 3, write down the names in three letters, below the t-RNA column, that corresponds to the t-RNA anticodons. • The proteain that should be deciphered is vasopressin. FIGURE 1 “Original DNA Sequence” A C G T A C A C G A T G A A G G T T T T A A C G G G A G C T C C T A T T A C G Figure 2: Base pairing rules for DNA with m-RNA and m-RNA to t-RNA DNA base bonds with m-RNA base bonds with t-RNA anticodes Adenine Uracil Adenine Thymine Adenine Uracil Cytosine Guanine...
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...DNA Worksheet REVISED Part1: Basic structure of DNA The nucleotide bases of a DNA consists of specific codes and particular strands of this codes are known as the genes. The genes codes for a particular protein which eventually be a specific trait. The pairing of the base in a DNA molecule is very specific. Adenine usually pairs with Thymine while Guanine normally pairs with Cytosine. A segment of a gene from DNA usually gives the necessary directions to build a RNA molecule and eventually translated into a protein (Simon, Reece and Dickey, 2010). Reason why DNA is referred to as a protein recipe DNA is referred to as a protein recipe because its molecules are made up of amino acid proteins which are in form of a long strand. The DNA structure is composed of codons. Basically, the DNA codes for RNA codon or a transcription which is used to form proteins which is the translation of the codon. Each group of tri-codons are then read by the ribosomes where for each group of 3 such codons, there is an amino acid. These amino acids are then bound together to make a protein chain. The complexity of a protein depends on the number and type of chains (Simon, Reece and Dickey, 2010). Part 2: Differences between DNA and RNA DNA is used for long-term storage of genetic information, transmission of genetic information so as to make other cells and new organisms and to transfer the genetic code to the ribosomes from the nucleus to manufacture proteins. On the other hand, RNA is used...
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...Transform with DNA and RNA Shelley Gutierrez, RNC Western Governors University Student ID: 391502 Sgutie6@wgu.edu How Cells Transmit Information and Transform with DNA and RNA All of our body cells are made up of 46 chromosomes. Each of the 46 chromosomes contains one DNA molecule. These chromosomes and proteins are found compressed in the nucleus of the cells. DNA and RNA are biological molecules that are nucleic acids. Both DNA and RNA are polymers. When polymers are linked together in DNA, they are called polynucleotides (Devlin, T. 2002). The polymers of DNA, known as nucleotides are composed of a phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar molecules, and 1 of 4 nitrogen bases. The four nitrogenous bases: adenosine, thymine, cytosine and guanine is where the genetic coding is found. DNA has twin molecules that twist together. This is known as the double helix. The double helix bonds with sugars and phosphates to form twin Strands. Chemically the sugar phosphate bonds travel down each side of the helix in opposite directions. One strand begins at the top of the 1st phosphate connected at the sugar molecules 5th carbon and ending where the next phosphate would go with the free end at the sugar’s 3rd carbon. This results in a pattern of 5 prime and 3 prime. The opposite occurs with the other strand resulting in a pattern of 3 prime and 5 prime. (Adams, R., & Knowler, J. 1986). Once they are bonded they are now known as base pairs. RNA and DNA both have...
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...CITY AND ISLINGTON COLLEGE Assignment BriefFront Cover Centre: | Centre for Applied Sciences | | | Learner name: | Mohamed elrraik | | | Course Code: | AS2212A11/AS2211A11 | | | Programme Level &Title: | BTEC Level 3 Extended Diploma in Applied Science | | | Unit Number & Title: | Unit 18 Genetics & Genetic Engineering | | | Assignment Title: | Assignment 1 – DNA & Protein synthesis | | | Assessor Name: | Jasmin Bongrani | | | Date Issued: | AS2212A11 12/09/11AS2211A11 30/01/12 | DateDue: | AS2212A11 10/10/11AS2211A11 05/03/12 | | | | | Turn It In Score: | | Referral Due Date: | | | | | | Internal Verifier Name: | Lee Walker | Date IVed: | 08/09/11 | Grading criteria | Y/N | Feedback(including action where necessary) | P1 | Compare and contrast the structure of various nucleic acids | | | M1 | Explain how genetic information an be stored in a sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA | | | D1 | Explain the steps involved in biosynthesis of protein including the roles of RNA | | | Additional Feedback and/or Action Plan: Date marked: | | Learner Declaration | I declare that all the work submitted for this assignment is my own work or, in the case of group work,the work of myself and the other members of the group in which I worked, and that no part of it has beencopied from any source. I understand that if any part of the...
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...The Process of DNA Replication Western Governors University The Process Of DNA Replication The process of DNA replication at the biochemistry level starts with DNA to RNA and RNA to protein. DNA is “The Master” molecule of every cell. It contains vital information that is passed onto every generation. It has information on how to make itself as well as other molecules. DNA is the key to life. RNA leaves the nucleus of the cell and makes proteins. (Sally Seller December 2013) http:/ /www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/ ribosome.htm The process by which both strands are replicated starts with the strands being separated and unwound by DNA Helicase. DNA polymerases, an enzymes which catalyze the synthesis of new complementary strands will add nucleotides to the 3’ end of the growing nucleotide strand. An RNA primer is needed to start the synthesis of a new strand to make the first 3’ end the enzyme needs. After that, the RNA is taken out and replace with DNA. The synthesis of both complementary strands start in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The leading strand will then grow continuously in the direction of the replication fork. On the leading strand, RNA primase comes in and add RNA primer. ! ! (thinkwell biochemistry 6.4.2) Newly synthesized DNA The lagging strand will point away from the opening of the fork. RNA primase will constantly add RNA primer as the strand opens up On the leading strand, DNA polymerase III will work to add all the DNA nucleotide . On...
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...Program & Start Date: BSN March 2015 Student ID: 000569724 Cell# (818) 387-7112 Los Angeles, CA -- Pacific Time DNA Replication The process by which a DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division. 2 DNA Ligase Seals the gap between Okazaki fragments. 3 Enzymes in DNA Replication • Helicase: unwinds the DNA allowing the single strands to be copied • Primase: produces RNA molecules • RNA Primer: starting point for DNA synthesis • DNA Polymerase I: removes RNA primers and replaces it with DNA • DNA Polymerase III: enzyme who is mainly copying • DNA Ligase: seals the gaps between Okazaki fragments • Okazaki fragments: short DNA fragment formed on the lagging template strand • Single-stranded Binding Proteins: binds singlestranded DNA and prevents premature binding to another DNA strand. 4 Transcription and Translation 5 Transcription and Translation 1. The enzyme Helicase unwinds and unzips the DNA strand then the enzyme RNA Polymerase (the enzyme that produces primary transcript RNA) uses one of the DNA strands to make an RNA copy of that one called the messenger RNA or mRNA. 2. Then mRNA travels to the cytoplasm where it is received by the ribosome. The mRNA must receive a cap and a Poly A Tail for protection from the cytoplasmic enzymes. The ribosome serves as the binding site for the mRNA and tRNA (RNA that helps decode an mRNA sequence into a protein. 3. For each codon of the mRNA, the matching tRNA anticodon that...
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