...Utilitarianism, Ethical Egoism, and Moral Relativism Tom Gardner Ethics is a branch of philosophy that attempts to answer the questions; what’s right? What’s wrong? And why? Moral relativism is an ethics position that essentially states that people have disagreeing moral beliefs and therefore you must but tolerant of other's morals. This position leads to the problematic realization that if this is the case there can be no objective moral truths nor can there be any universal principles. Act utilitarianism and ethical egoism are two different ethics theories that attempt to respond to this challenge of moral relativism in different ways. Ethical egoism attempts to respond to the challenge of moral relativism by justifying that there is a universal principle for what actions are right and what are wrong. It is a form of consequentialism, which means it looks solely at the consequences of action to see if it is right or wrong. The defining sentence of egoism is as follows, “What's good for you is right and what's bad for you is wrong.” This phrase can be interpreted in a number of ways, the most popular one being: every person should act in their own self-interest. This means that when deciding on whether an action is good, any effect on others (mental or physical) by said action has no merit. An egoist that is measuring or justifying an action's goodness is only examining the possible positive or negative effects this action will have on him. The majority of the justification...
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...“Moral relativism is a better system than moral absolutism” Moral relativism refers to the normative ethical system which rejects the idea of absolutes and instead believes that “man is the measure of all things”- which was skilfully expressed by Ruth Benedict. The moral relative system surpasses that of moral absolutism and this will be justified throughout this essay. Moral relativist systems exceed moral absolutist systems due to diversity. The system explains the different values that people hold and encourages diverse cultural expressions due to there being no rigidity or fixe ethical code. This allows for a better system as it signifies freedom of expression and people being able to share their opinions with each other, without there being a ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. This is due to the system prohibiting dominant cultures from enforcing itself over others simply because of a disparity of opinions. This means that all cultures are valued by a relativist as there is no objective knowledge that one must accept, they instead must accept all actions as equally valid in the society in which they take place. This would then make is difficult for a relativist to criticise religious acts such as Muslim women wearing a hijab in England , which is beneficial to society due to the lack of discrimination and ignorance. In conjunction with diversity, moral relativism is a better system than moral absolutism due to circumstantial aspects. Moral absolutism does not take into account the...
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...Freud Psychosexual Development In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the oral, the anal, thephallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. Sigmund Freud proposed that if the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to any psychosexual developmental stage, he or she would experience anxiety that would persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder. Stages of Development Stage | Age Range | Erogenous zone | Consequences of psychologic fixation | Oral | Birth–1 year | Mouth | Orally aggressive: chewing gum and the ends of pencils, etc. Orally Passive: smoking, eating, kissing, oral sexual practices[4] Oral stage fixation might result in a passive, gullible, immature, manipulativepersonality. | Anal | 1–3 years | Bowel and bladderelimination | Anal retentive: Obsessively organized, or excessively neat Anal expulsive: reckless, careless, defiant, disorganized, coprophiliac | Phallic | 3–6 years | Genitalia | Oedipus complex (in boys and girls); according to Sigmund Freud.Electra complex (in girls); according to Carl Jung. | Latency | 6–puberty | Dormant sexual feelings | Sexual unfulfillment if fixation occurs in this stage. | Genital | Puberty–death | Sexual interests mature...
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...Theories of Socialization Introduction to Sociology October 20, 2010 Understanding socialization can be a very challenging process which can lead to several theories. There were a few good thinkers from the mid 1800s to the late 1900s that developed a few good theories to understand society. Sigmund Freud, developer of the “Psychoanalysis” theory, believed the humans have two basic needs or drives that are present at birth. One is the need for sexual and emotional bonding, which he called “life instinct” and the second is an aggressive drive that we all share called the “death instinct”. In his theory the human personality has three parts; the “id” which are the human’s innate, pleasure-seeking drives which are typically unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction, the “ego” which are our efforts to balance innate, pleasure-seeking drives and the demands of society, and the “superego” which are the demands of society in the form of internalized values and norms. This was called the elements of personality. Another great thinker was Jean Piaget who developed the “cognitive development” theory. Piaget theory is based on human cognition, how people think and understand. He developed this theory by identifying four stages of cognitive development. The first is the sensorimotor stage, this is the level of human development at which individuals experience the world only through their senses; this will be in the first two years of a child’s life. The next is the preoperational...
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...Theory of human development provides a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. Understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society. 1. Psychosexual development is a theory credited to Sigmund Freud, According to Freud, a person's experiences at an early age dramatically influence both his personality and his future actions. Freud's psychosexual development theory focuses on psychosexual stages, with each focused on a particular part of the body capable of producing pleasant or pleasurable feelings, and each playing a role in the development of sexual instinct. Freud asserted that sexual instinct was the most important influence on personality. He claimed this instinct was present when a child was born and continued to develop through the psychosexual stages. * The oral stage occurs in an infant’s life from birth to 18 months. During this time, an infant is focused with receiving oral pleasure. It is believed that these people may focus on activities that involve the mouth such as over eating, biting the fingernails, smoking, or drinking. The theory states that these people may develop personality traits such as becoming extremely gullible or naive, always following others and never taking the lead, and becoming extremely dependent upon others. * The anal stage is directly related to a child’s awareness of bowel control and gaining pleasure through the act of eliminating or retaining feces between 18 months...
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...represents the distinction amongst the human mind and a computer that suggest that humans have the ability to process information from around the world just as computer. Cognitive psychology is not old but the newest part of psychology where the information we receive through our senses is then administered through the brain. Cognitive psychologists try to develop explanations of cognitive development, memory, attention, artificial intelligence, perception, and social cognition. The laboratory methods used to determine the outcome of a controlled circumstance are memory test and research studies. During the early 21st century, it appears that experimental psychology is healthy and growing; likewise the crisis in theories and progress is of discern. At this time there is not a crisis in psychology, nevertheless psychology can be described as an interregnum period, with much activity and no major leading directions or theoretical commitments (Mandler, 2011). The first crisis shown in psychology was seen in 1899. There was an argument of an epistemological basis in the sense of a purely empirical theory, excluding all metaphysical presuppositions (Mandler, 2011). There were several psychologists that wrote books about the crisis that appeared in psychology. Two psychologists I shall mention are Hans Driesch and Karl Buhler. In 1925, Hans Driesch, a German biologist and philosopher, published a book...
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...Personality Our personality requires a mix of characteristic patterns of thinking, feelings and actions. There are four perspectives of personality, and they are psychoanalytical, trait, humanistic and social-cognitive. There are three theories I will describe and compare about personality development. We assess personality through two types of test but with every test comes benefits and issues. The four perspectives of personality attempt to describe different patterns in personality. The psychoanalytical perspective of personality was created by Sigmund Freud. The perspective emphasizes the importance of early childhood familiarity and the unconscious mind. There is some theorist who disagree with some of the aspects of Sigmund Freud theories, but agree with the importance of the unconscious mind. The rest of the theorist have different opinions when it come to the psychoanalytical perspective but share a common understanding that makes up this theory. The trait perspective of personality has a few major theorist that came up with this perspective. The perspective is centered on classifying, describing and assessing the specific traits that makeup human personality. The theorist believes that by understanding these traits they could understand the differences between people. They came up with the dimensions of personality and the personal traits that can measure the difference in personality. These things are the main reason that this perspective is today. The humanistic...
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...Cross sectional study – a study of development in which individuals of different ages are compared at the same time Longitudinal study – a study of development in which observations of the same individuals are compared at different times of their lives Prenatal Period – approx. nine months between conception and birth, development depends on genetic contribution from gametes - x chromosome inactivation is one example of this factor at work, one of two x chromosomes is silenced by women, most of its genes don't synthesize properly; determins whether chromosomes will be inherited from mother or father - x chromosome inactivation is an example of an epigenetic modificatoin zygote stage - where zygote divides many times and the internal organs begin to form embryonic stage – of prenatal development (2-8) weeks - zygote= embryo, fast development, most susceptible to chemicals and toxins like rubella - teratogens: substances, agents and events that can cause birth defects gonads will become either ovaries or testies if testies present, begin to secret sex hormones called androgens; most important = testosteronel development of female sex organs occurs naturally; doesn't need hormones Fetal stage= seven months. bone cells and ends with birth, 3rd = organ, 4th = heartbeat Kisilevsky and colleagues- mothers voice = faster heartt rate of baby salapatek – 1-2 month babies their scanning strategy is limited to fixations on a few parts object 4 and 5 months – can descriminate...
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...Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Early childhood is not only a period of amazing physical growth, it is also a time of remarkable mental development. Cognitive abilities associated with memory, reasoning, problem-solving and thinking continue to emerge throughout childhood. When it comes to childhood cognitive development, it would be impossible to avoid mentioning the work of psychologist Jean Piaget. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22, Jean Piaget began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and education. Through his work with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he concluded that children are not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."Piaget created a theory of cognitive development that described the basic stages that children go through as they mentally mature. He believed that children are like "little scientists," actively trying to make sense of the world rather than simply soaking up information passively. Schemas One of the key concepts in Piaget's theory is the use of schemas. According to Piaget,schemas are cognitive frameworks or concepts that help people organize and interpret information. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to or completely change previously existing schemas. For example, a young...
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...PGCE Educational Psychology: Theory in Practice Rhodes University, 2011 By Nicole Messias With reference to any aspect of Childhood Development and Educational Psychology, critically discuss what you think will be the major challenges to you as a teacher in the South African context and reflect on your own development as a learner in relation to the theory; • Developmental Stages – Piaget – Erikson – Kohlberg The way in which teachers are educated and supported to meet the challenges of the 21st century has huge influence on their ability to manage their classroom dynamics. Thus teachers need to engage with resources that enable them to provide substantial attention to learners, learning, and human development. Knowledge of the domain of educational psychology is a central resource to the teaching enterprise and to the preparation of teachers. Teacher who have knowledge of the psychology of learning, development, and instruction are better able to facilitate the learning and development of each individual student as they possess a broad and deep understanding of children, the subjects they teach, the nature of learning and schooling, and the world around them. As a student teacher specializing in the foundation phase of learning I have decided to investigate...
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...The secret world that lies in the mind of adolescence is one that many adults may not understand. The brief glimpses that adults receive are so minute that they often misread what they see. In order to truly get to know and help those in this stage, adults need to wade through the rude comments, the unpredictable behavior, and secrecy to really see their world. This world that they live in is cluttered with identity crisis and moral conflict. Silence, conformity, and submission also pollute this world of adolescence. The goal of this stage is to achieve some level of selfhood, if their world becomes too encumbered it will lead them to over-identification with the peer group, identity confusion, and excessive rebellion (Steinberg, 1993). This does not have to be the case. Through guided independence, close family relations and positive peer interactions their world will become less mysterious and positive goals will be met. The Franklin Starbucks provides one with excellent view of adolescence who is navigating their world successfully and those who are desperately fighting to find their selfhood. As one began to watch three girls walked into the coffee shop, they had to be around 14 or 15(hard to tell these days). There were no adults with them and they all ordered the same drink. Soon after they ordered they were joined by taller girl with black hair, she appeared to be the oldest among them. The oldest girl did most of the talking and the other three just responded...
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...assess, analyze and develop a care plan for children, it is imperative to consider their psychosocial and physical growth. Furthermore, family involvement as well as cultural and spiritual extent play significant role in the care plan. It is important to take into account that each child must strive to accomplish and complete each of Erickson’s theory stages in order for a healthy personality. Going hand in hand with Erickson’s theory, Piaget’s theory consisting of four stages of intellectual development is also crucial. This paper will show how Erickson’s and Piagets theory are applied during toddlers development at Kidango. Erickson and Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development for Toddlers at Kidango. The age group encountered at Kidango was toddlers whose ages range from 2-3years. This age group falls under stage 2 of Erickson’s theory which is autonomy/independence vs. shame and doubt. Per Erickson, at...
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...Involvement: A Developmental Theory for Higher Education Alexander W. Astin A student development theory based on student involvement is presented and described, and the implications for practice and research are discussed. Even a casual reading of the extensive literature on student development in higher education can create confusion and perplexity. One finds not only that the problems being studied are highly diverse but also that investigators who claim to be studying the same problem frequently do not look at the same variables or employ the same methodologies. And even when they are investigating the same variables, different investigators may use completely different terms to describe and discuss these variables. My own interest in articulating a theory of student development is partly practical—I would like to bring some order into the chaos of the literature—and partly self-protective. I and increasingly bewildered by the muddle of f indings that have emerged from my own research in student development, research that I have been engaged in for more than 20 years. The theory of student involvement that I describe in this article appeals to me for several reasons. First, it is simple: I have not needed to draw a maze consisting of dozens of boxes interconnected by two-headed arrows to explain the basic elements of the theory to others. Second, the theory can explain most of the empirical knowledge about environmental influences on student development that researchers have gained...
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...81. - 100. You are to explain a complicated procedure to a 4-year-old child. Describe how you would consider their cognitive level (Piaget) psychosocial stage (Erikson) and moral level (Kohlberg) to create an appropriate setting and information to help the child understand the procedure. Pre-operational stage-To explain Piaget’s cognitive level of a four years old child, I am going to focus on his second level of cognitive development called pre-operational stage. The child’s thinking at this stage is said to be before operations. This age starts at two and ends at the age of seven. It is at this crucial stage that the child learns to use language symbols. At this level of development the child cannot separate ideas or even apply logic (Cherry...
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...CHILD DEVELOPMENT Principles & Perspectives © 2005 Joan Littlefield Cook Greg Cook 0-205-40028-0 Exam Copy ISBN 0-205-31411-2 Bookstore ISBN Visit www.ablongman.com/replocator to contact your local Allyn & Bacon/Longman representative. s a m p l e c h a p t e r The pages of this Sample Chapter may have slight variations in final published form. Allyn & Bacon 75 Arlington St., Suite 300 Boston, MA 02116 www.ablongman.com Cognitive Development Piagetian and Sociocultural Views CHAPTER PREVIEW Piaget’s Constructivist View of Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural View of Cognitive Development • Piaget as a Child Prodigy • Constructivism and Interaction with the Environment Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development • Vygotsky’s Background: The Sociocultural Context for a New Theory • The Role of Speech and Language • Mediation: With a Little Help from Your Friends • The Zone of Proximal Development • Scaffolding: Support during Learning Recent Sociocultural Views of Cognitive Development • Stage 1: Sensorimotor Thought (Birth to 2 Years) • Stage 2: Preoperational Thought (2 to 7 Years) • Stage 3: Concrete Operational Thought (7 to 11 Years) • Stage 4: Formal Operational Thought (Approximately Age 12 and Above) • Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory • Piaget’s Legacy • Situated Cognition • Guided Participation • Thinking as Socially Shared Cognition: Two Heads Are Better than One “Maria wants to pick the best school for her sons, so she...
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