...Evaluating the role of ethnic identity in explaining the occurrence of contemporary civil conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa. High hopes for many newly independent states of Africa became diminished as the 1990s saw over a quarter of the continent's states facing armed insurgencies within their borders (Young, 2002: 534). Commentators often point to pathological, deep-seated hatreds in an African tribal mosaic as the bases of such conflict. The fact is, however, that the continent is awash with political grudges, ethnically-framed and otherwise, but civil wars rarely break out. Thus this essay seeks to take a more nuanced approach to understand the analytical challenge posed by such disorder. Starting out by countering the centrality of ethnic identity, it firstly seeks to demonstrate that ethnic identities do not exist primordially, but that they are constructed on weak foundations. Secondly it endeavours to show that where cleavages do exist along lines of cultural difference, simple heterogeneity is insufficient to account for the outbreak of conflict. Next, it moves to underline the fact that more important in explaining civil conflict is whether such conflict is feasible. This is understood both in terms of the perceived capacity of the state and in terms of the viability of insurgency for would-be rebels. A final conclusion will then be expounded that ethnicity is not a central factor, but that it is simply one of a number of strategies under which conflict may be framed...
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...The Solution to Ethnic and Racial Civil Conflict Jacqueline Zhang GOVT 150W Introduction to International Politics Introduction Within a period of three months in 1994, an estimated five to eight hundred thousand people were killed as a result of civil war and genocide in Rwanda. Large numbers were physically and psychologically afflicted for life through maiming, rape and other trauma; over two million fled to neighboring countries and maybe half as many became internally displaced within Rwanda. This human suffering was and is incomprehensible. Similar ethnic and racial civil conflicts have deeply scarred countries and are threatening to break out in many places around the globe. Too much blood has been shed for ethnic and racial causes and too many have died in ethnic and racial wars. In accordance to the constructivist model of nationalism, identity (re)construction solves ethnic and racial civil conflict. Definition For the purpose of demonstrating how identity (re)construction solves ethnic and racial civil conflicts, “solve” can be defined as 1) to explain and 2) to put an end to, settle. In addition, “explain” means to make clear the cause, origin or reason of. Furthermore, an ethnicity is a population of human beings whose members identify with each other, on the basis of a real or a presumed common genealogy or ancestry. The term race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics...
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...After the Civil War ended reconstruction was a time for struggle for many of former slaves that were freed after the war. During slavery many of the African Americans that were previously enslaved knew no other skills except farming. Time passed and then came Booker T. Washington who gave a speech on working together to achieve equality. Booker T. Washington in his speech offered many ideas on ways to improve the community of African Americans and White Americans to come together and actually achieve what will be the best for both communities economically and socially. In this quote from his speech, Washington states that in order to achieve equality and for African Americans to be able to abide to the whites, whites must not strip the Africans of all their "enjoyment of all the privileges". Also, in order to work towards a better future for a better economy and stable life in America, work and progress cannot be "forced" and that time will be needed to achieve all this. It is then on behalf of almost all former African slaves that Washington speaks on behalf of that, African Americans will not mind working for white...
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...another entity. The importance of colonial history was evident in Sudan in January, 2011 when a referendum asked voters of southern Sudan to decide between separating from Sudan and maintaining a unified Sudan. Nearly 99 percent of eligible voters cast their ballot for independence thereby ending the 55 year existence of the largest nation in African (Hanzich, 2011). An extremely diverse country in which governmental decisions have favored the Arab population of the North, Sudan’s existence has been marked by strife. For all but 12 years, Sudan has been torn apart by civil wars. Since the colonial period ended, Sudan’s central government could not use violence, oppression, or peace agreements to minimize colonialism’s impact and establish a sense of unity in the country. Thus, the creation of South Sudan stems from colonization which confined opposing factions within one political boundary and created a history of civil war. The artificial political boundaries established by Sudan’s colonial powers—Egypt and Great Britain—brought together diversity for which Sudan’s central government could not build unity. Building cohesion has been difficult because colonial powers determined a country’s borders “according to colonial territorial holdings not along ethnic communities, and tended to practice the strategy of divide and rule to minimize local challenges against the colonial authority” (Ylonen, 2009, p. 39). In Sudan the British created boundaries that allowed them to have claim...
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...Americans in jail, poverty, and low wage jobs than any other American. Being an African American from 1865 to current date and time seems to have been a great sacrifice by many in American history for many living in this current time because today we have African Americans in important positions in all walks of life in Politics and Business. African Americans went from Slavery to fighting in wars from Civil war all the way up to the Afghanistan War and are now fighting side by side with people of all colors, ethnicity, gender and origin, and From Slavery to equality to the first Black President in American History. First, Being an African American from 1865 to current date and time seems to have been a great sacrifice by many in American history for many living in this current time because today we have African Americans in important positions in all walks of life in Politics and Business. Additionally, African Americans went from Slavery to fighting in wars from Civil war all the way up to the Afghanistan War and are now fighting side by side with people of all colors, ethnicity, gender and origin. Finally, the most important reason being an African American from 1865 to current date and time seems to have been a great sacrifice by many in American history for many living in this current time. is From Slavery to equality to the first Black President in American History. Concluding Paragraph Indeed, while the...
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...Saving Mr Ugwu Saving Mr Ugwu is a story that puts focus on the differences in the society in the African Country Nigeria. The difference the story focusses on is the difference between different cultures, ethnicities and individual rights which emerges from these differences. The story takes place in Nigeria with Mr Ugwu who is a Christian Igbo, which is an ethnic group in Nigeria. Because of Mr Ugwu’s job he has been forced to move from Lagos to the bush, which geographically is a step down in the social hierarchy. The bush is a place where the Hausas are the dominant ethnicity and rain is one of the rarest things you will see. Saving Mr Ugwu is a short story by Lin Anderson. The point of view in the story is a third person narrator and Mr Ugwu is the main character whom is followed by the reader. The reader gets to know Mr Ugwu’s thoughts and feelings. Mr Ugwu is also the only person that we are able to characterize, because he is the only person that the reader receives enough knowledge about to make a characterization of. Mr Ugwu is a Christian Igbo who works for the Baturi. The Baturi makes Mr Ugwu the scapegoat as they make him deliver the low payment to the Hausas for working. Despite of this Mr Ugwu appreciates his job and his employer. The appreciation he gives his work and employer can be seen in the following quotation from the text, “The company has been good to him, he reminds himself. Good to hisfamily. He is a company man. When the company tells him to go somewhere...
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...The Role of the American Government in creating Race Wars and Racial Tension There has been a long standing history of cultural divide in this country. The United States of America was built upon this premise. Race has always been a defining factor of what position you have been placed in society. America was founded upon a revolutionary approach, and once America was conquered by Europe, they set their government up to only include Europeans. The system was developed by Anglo-Saxons as a self-serving mechanism that excluded all other races. The Native Americans experienced this first hand when their country was occupied by British, French, and Spanish crusaders. This, amongst other invasions, led to the first examples of racial wars and tension in American history. We have seen this play out throughout the generations of our ancestors, who have experienced this state of racial tension, segregation, and slave ownership on both sides of the equation. America has always had racial tension from its inception. Several Civil Wars have occurred on American soil, and race has been an issue in most of them. We have been taught in society that being a certain race can define your future and potential for success. This has been proven in every aspect of American life. The infrastructure of the United States was built by several different races, some by choice, and some through slavery, and this is the driving force behind the deep seeded tension experienced by current Americans today...
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...anti-slavery campaigns. Like Adam Smith, he was very certain that free people are more productive than slaves. Inhumane acts marked the lives of slaves. Masters could whip their Slaves even in public, and they were tied to immobilize them from running away. Thanks, to the antislavery campaigns through evangelism that led to the end of slave trade and slavery. An analysis of the second great awakenings reveals that there is a link between the evangelical spirit and the "reforming Impulse." This link animated the many movements of social reform in the years leading up to the American Civil War. The American evangelicals depicted Americans as the most religious people in the world. It gives an account of the American religious history and how the Protestant churches like the American Methodist Church came along. Several Protestant churches resulted from divisions in the denominations (McLoughlin 4). The American civil war resulted from the ideological differences between camps in America. On one hand was the side that was headed by preachers. This camp conducted...
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...be the foundation of Igbo culture. Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure Eri.[21] The oldest pieces of bronzes made out of the lost-wax process in West Africa were from Igbo Ukwu, a city under Nri influence.[19] Colonial era Main article: Colonial Nigeria Benin city in the 17th century with the Oba of Benin in procession. This image was pictured in a European book, Description of Africa, in 1668.[22] Spaniard and Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to begin trade in Nigeria in the port they named Lagos and in Calabar. The Europeans traded with the ethnicities of the coast and also negotiated a trade in slaves, to the detriment and profit of many Nigerian ethnicities. Consequently many of the citizens of the former slave nations of the British Empire are descended from a Nigerian ethnic group. Britain abolished its slave trade in 1807 and,...
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...independence. Executive intrusions into civil and political liberties started (Sesay and Hughes 2005). Siaka Stevens of the All Peoples Congress (APC) party exacerbated these intrusions when he became Prime Minister in 1968 (Sesay and Hughes 2005). Among the combination of strategies used by Stevens and his party to achieve their political objectives were repression, corruption clientelism,...
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...English, it was the power to beat, to hit, to flog, to whip, to inflict quick and dirty punishment.” As a result of the 13th Amendment, white Southerners lost their ability to control African Americans through forced labor, and wanted new ways to control African Americans. Many white Southerners took advantage of the convict lease system which, as stated in the 13th Amendment, would take prisoners, mainly African Americans, who could not pay off debts and sell them into forced labor for railroads, farms, and plantations. Although slavery had been abolished, powerful white Southerners found ways to control African Americans. The death penalty is an ever-present situation for many Americans after the end of the Civil War, and capital punishment...
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...Required Text. The House made of Dawn by N. Scott Momaday. This book is available in the bookstore for you and there is also a copy in the library for your use. In addition there will be weekly online readings in D2L. You must do the required reading to pass the class. Students must attend lectures and take notes. Participation, i.e., your attention is required. Course description: This course examines the arts and ideas taken from the American experience in the 20th century and today. Material covered includes literature, art, music, philosophy and history of the twentieth century. The course draws upon the arts of African American, Native American, Asian American, Anglo and Latino cultures as avenues for understanding issues of ethnicity, class and gender as they intersect with mainstream American values. Course presentation: Lecture, discussion, audio-visual materials and readings from the text, online, and material to be supplied by the instructor. In addition an extra-credit will be offered. Attendance: Required, a student missing more than 5.4 class hours may be dropped from the course (this is four class sessions). Because of the recent budget situation instructors are encouraged to drop students who are not attending class. Basic Rules: Woody Allen once said “The key to success is showing up.” Be on time. Do not leave early. No laptops, cell phones, text messaging devices etc. Pen and paper will serve you better here. Any Student found not doing...
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...Assignment #1 – “America’s Post-Civil War Growing Pains” By Keith A. Watterson Strayer University Dr. Hammons Spring 2013 Two major historical turning points from the period in United States history know as Reconstruction, (1865-1877), were; how to integrate rebel states back into the nation and the social dilemma of how to integrate four (4) million newly freed slaves. This paper will show that almost all major problems faced by all people, (regardless of color or ethnicity), during this period, stemmed from these two conditions. These two turning points have an effect on current society in many ways. Though slavery has been over for many decades, America is still feeling the trickle down effects of this long gone institution. Black and White relations in the South (and North) though much, much better than many years ago, still has pockets of racism throughout the country. Also, though it is not as blatant as in the past, people still possess some of the same prejudices that they did in the 1800’s. Personally, this became evident to me during the last presidential election. Many people did not listen to what either candidate was saying but looked directly at their color, race, and ethnicity. I think this election divided America, though no one would say it publically. Once it was decided, everyone made their feelings known by saying “well I did not vote for this program or that program”, which was just another way of saying I did not vote for the candidate that...
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...The U. S. Civil War and Civil Right Era Abstract This paper will contain information dated during the Civil War through the Civil Rights Era. Throughout this paper you will hear about the expansion of the U.S Federal government and the events of the Civil War, The Reconstruction Period, The Progressive Era, The Great Depression and The Civil Rights Era. The U. S. Civil War and Civil Right Era The Civil War is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic or less commonly between two countries created from a united nation. The Civil Right Era began in 1955. Another important factor of this particular era was the great depression. Throughout this paper you will hear about the events, trials and tribulations that transpired throughout this time frame. Through the expansion of the U.S Federal government are the events of the Civil War, the Reconstruction period, the Progressive Era, The Great Depression and the Civil Rights Era, which will also be discussed. The Civil War officially began on April 12, 1861, when confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The bloodiest battle of the Civil War took place in Maryland on September 17, 1862, which was called the Battle of Antietam. This event caused Abraham Lincoln to announce abolish to slavery in the South, which became official in 1863. More men died in the Civil War than any other American conflict, and two-thirds of the dead perished from disease. (Facts, 2011)...
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...After the Civil War, the United States became a much more industrialized society. Between 1865 and 1920, industrialization improved American life in many ways. However, industrialization also created problems for American society. Consider events that took place after the Civil War and discuss ways that industrialization affected the U.S. between 1865 and 1920. You have already developed a thesis statement and developed an outline in which you identify three main points relevant to your topic. Now you will develop the final paper in which you explore your main points in detail. Write a three to five (3-5) page paper in which you: 1. Introduce your paper with your previously crafted thesis statement. 2. Discuss three (3) major aspects of industrialization between 1865 and 1920. In your response, consider society, the economy, and politics. 3. Identify three (3) specific groups that were affected by industrialization and provide two examples for each group describing how the group was affected. (Consider issues such as race, ethnicity, gender, child labor, etc.) 4. Summarize how industrialization affected the life of the average working American during this period. Use specific examples and details. 5. Use at least three (3) academic references besides or in addition to the textbook. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources. Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements: * Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman...
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