...Megan Morrone Sigmund Freud and William James on Religion Intro to Philosophy Final May 3, 2013 The Will to Believe, an essay by William James, is a defense of religious faith in the absence of convincing logical facts or scientific evidence. James focuses on reasoning and choice in reference to the basis of belief. To James, when reasoning it is a necessity to recognize other considerations apart from those in which the evidence points to. If truth is the primary focus of our beliefs, sometimes it may necessary to take the risk of believing without solid evidence. Moreover, he clarifies that, although we sometimes have a choice in what we believe, there are many beliefs that we cannot will. James views faith in God as falling short of knowledge because we, as humans do not naturally experience the supernatural. However, he also explains that, such faith is sensibly meaningful to many people, and it is reasonable to wonder how, and to what extent it can be justified. James believes that both logic and science have limits beyond which we can legitimately seek rationality. James discusses genuine choice and stresses the three criteria for genuine choice; the choice must be live, forced, and momentous. In other words, personally meaningful, mutually exclusive and presented with an option and/or answer, and must involve potentially important consequences. James defines religion broadly, as having simply two elements, the first being that the best things are eternal, and second...
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...are clearly expressed in three of Ninian Smart’s dimensions of religion and are also interlocking. The first Gem, The Buddha, fulfills Ninian’s described mythological dimension. The next Gem, the Dharma, expresses the doctrinal dimension. Finally, the third Gem, the Sangha, deals with the social dimension. The first Gem, the Buddha, can clearly be categorized under the mythological dimension of religion. This Gem consists of stories of the life cycles of Shakyamuni, who is the Buddha of the current era. Most of the stories however focus on the life cycle of Siddartha, in which the bodhisattva(one who has dedicated himself to achieving Buddhahood) actually achieves enlightenment and becomes Buddha Shakyamuni(Oxtoby/Segal p377). The stories explain how, “Siddhartha travels the path from a vow to seek enlightenment, to its attainment, to the teaching of others how to follow that path”(Buddhism Lecture One, Week Four). These stories and legends are considered mythological as they are not scripture for Buddhists, and they are not a direct biography of Buddha Shakyamuni’s life, yet they serve the purpose to outline a path for other Buddhists to follow to reach enlightenment (Introduction Lecture, Week One). According to Ninian Smart, “… we shall include stories relating to significant historical events under the head of the mythological dimension- again without prejudice to whether the stories accurately describe what actually occurred in history”(Ninian Smart, p8). Following this...
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...our attention to the six dimensions of religion: doctrines, rituals, myths, ethics, experience and society. These are very important elements of religion. All religions have doctrines which are at the center of their activities. The doctrines involve the codes, creeds and the cult. Again, all religions have the performance of rituals. The rituals are performed in physical terms but have spiritual implication for the believer. It is these rituals that enable man to identify with the spiritual world. Examples of such rituals include libation, prayers, sacrifice, etc. Furthermore, all religions have a mythological element that makes it difficult to explain the inexplicable. Countless stories abound in the world religions about their founders, their experiences and their concept of the spirit. There are myths that are not easy to comprehend. Again, every religion has an ethical dimension. They all emphasize on good conduct or morality. No religion encourages bad or unacceptable conduct. Believers are enjoined to live a way of life that reflects the philosophy of the religion. The codes are expected to be followed religiously by members. The day to day activities of believers and what they perceive as the interference of the spiritual is seen as the experiential dimension. Issues like miracles and healing are linked to religious experience. Most religions have these elements. Lastly, religion is society based. There can be no religion without society. It takes place in society...
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...enlightens on how religion and family is affected by the functionalist perspective. The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable. The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. Each of the social institutions contributes important functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power. Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the part of society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for any problems that may arise. Religion from a Functionalist...
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...The Dietary Taboos in Judaism Course: Philosphy of Religion The concept of taboos exists in several religions; its presence has been there for many years. The significance of taboos may be because of health concerns in the sense that certain taboos may reduce, and suppress people to eat a certain food item or act upon something which may have a negative impact on our health both mentally, and physically. Another reason may be to prevent people from upsetting the gods or goddesses. The third reason is for the community to have an order in their government as well as the proper regulations in the economy. One of many taboos that are present in the modern day is the dietary restrictions in the Judaism religion. This specific taboo is known as Kosher or Kashrut, among Jewish people (Rich, 2011). It originates from Torah, a holy scripture which dates back several years ago (Religious Laws: Taboo Foods in Judaism). Some of the restrictions the taboo states are that people should not eat pork; meat and dairy products that come in contact, and shellfish. The concept of this taboo is similar to other religions such as the Hindu and Islamic religions. To begin with, the reason behind not consuming pork is that pigs or meat from this species are considered unclean therefore restricted because of hygiene issues (Religious Laws: Taboo Foods in Judaism). The taboo also restrains people from eating meat that come from animals that do not have cloven hooves or chew their own cud, for...
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...General Religious Education Islam and Sikhism Name: Kai Arrowsmith Tutor Group:12 A General RE Teacher: Mr. Tangka Learning Outcomes: Know about world religions, their practices, demands, beliefs and challenges in contemporary society. Assessment Criteria: 2.1 List the daily demands of religious commitment in one religious tradition. 3.1 State how one faith tradition would explain the purpose of human life 3.2 Sate how one faith tradition would explain the purpose of death 4.1 List the key elements of practice within religious faith. General RE Note Sheets World Religions- Islam History Key Beliefs Learning Outcomes: Know about world religions, their practices, demands, beliefs and challenges in contemporary society. Assessment Criteria: 2.1 List the daily demands of religious commitment in one religious tradition. 3.1 State how one faith tradition would explain the purpose of human life 3.2 Sate how one faith tradition would explain the purpose of death 4.1 List the key elements of practice within religious faith. Worship Today Additional Notes The Five Pillars of Islam What are the five Pillars of Islam? These are five duties that every Muslim is obliged to perform. The five pillars of Islam help Muslims put their faith into action. 1. Shahadah: declaration of faith "I bear witness that there is no god, but God; I bear witness that Muhammad is the prophet of God." By reciting this, one enters Islamic faith...
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...understanding. Generally speaking, the author firstly use “The Rise and Fall of CSR” introduce a briefly development of CSR as well as the importance of the history. Then, a few facts are used to expose social, ecological and ethical issues and implied the CSR has failed. Three factors are followed to explain “The Failure of CSR”. And then, contrasting and explaining CSR 1.0 and CSR 2.0 respectively, in the “Embracing the Future” section, five principles that make up the DNA of CSR 2.0 are detailed analyzed. After shifting from CSR 1.0 to CSR 2.0 in both principles and practices, a logical conclusion is pushed that a new model of CSR is needed to meet new challenges. Finally, the author presents the Double-Helix Model, analogizing CSR 2.0 constitution with DNA chains. At the end of the article, the author talked about the real purpose of business, that is, serve society. How has CSR evolved? As the author described, corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a dynamic movement has been experienced for more than 4,000 years. He outlined 8 main processes of evolution from the ancient to the 21st century, from firstly mentioned in religion texts or activities to modern concept introduced by industrialists, and from institutionalized with standards to plethora in 21st century. What are the key challenges organisations face? The author pointed out that the CSR has failed, we are witnessing the continuously decline or it might be reborn and rejuvenated (Visser, 2010). The failure can...
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...(2014). Living religions (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Week 1 Discussion for World Religions – REL212 "Understanding Religions and Indigenous Sacred Ways" Please respond to the following: Define indigenous religion, and describe at least one aspect of indigenous religions that exists in a similar form in a traditional mainstream religion. Define religion, and discuss why it is useful in society. Explain why it is important for you personally to understand the beliefs of other religious groups. Unlike many of the world’s major religions, indigenous religions often centers their spirituality within the context of the natural world and on particular geographic features, including bodies of water, trees, mountains, animals and everything is perceived as being alive with sacred existence. The word indigenous means originated in, and thus the term indigenous religion means the original religion of a place. Indigenous religions in the majority include those not considered to be 'world religions', such as Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism, but instead are often rural in nature, do not seek converts, and identify with specific ethnic groups. One aspect of indigenous religions that exists in a similar form in a traditional mainstream religion is African indigenous tradition is conceived as continuum, that follows the process of birth, death and rebirth, the same as Christians, we are born, we die and we have eternal life with Christ Jesus. Religion has been the...
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...The Arabic word “Islam” translates to submission in peace, and in Islamic practice it is understood to mean submission in peace to the will of the God Almighty. Islam is one of the largest religions in the world and it put into practice one of religion’s most powerful leaders, Muhammed, who had a great influence on humanity. As a religious leader, Muhammed implemented principles upon which Islam still utilize today. Muhammed claimed to be the last prophet sent from God. Post September 11, 2011, the Islam religion was cast in a negative light, but this has not negatively affected the enthusiasm of Muslim members, nor has it hindered its growth. With over a billion members belonging to the religion worldwide, Islam is one of the largest religions in the world. But what is Islam? Who is Muhammed? How does this religion differ from other religions? What motivates people to not only join the religion, but remain faithful members? If one was to conduct research on the answers to these questions, based upon media, one would assume Islam to be a religion of hatred and violence, however, it is divided into many subgroups, and among those groups there are some people that fit the description. Unfortunately, in this case, that one bad apple has spoiled the whole bunch. Islam first emerged in Arabia, specifically in the city of Mecca, in the seventh century C.E. There were some well-established cities, such as Mecca, but the inhabitants of the non-habited spaces were the Bedouin, who...
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...It is normal to underestimate the power of philosophy. It is a social science that has lost influence in the 21st Century because many do not understand how this science can help humans achieve true happiness. Though philosophy is a heavy subject, it is the science with the most results regarding human nature and knowledge. Philosophy offers guidance to understand human behavior as well as to question our presence and our real role in society. It is one of the leading social sciences because many world leaders have tried to grasp it and understand the meaning of it thus showing how important it is to study philosophy. Nevertheless, not only should world leaders study philosophy but also everyone should be aware of the different philosophical teachings in order to differentiate well from wrongdoing. It is no surprise that philosophers understood ethics and politics before others, therefore showing the depth and practicality of philosophy as well as defining academia. Philosophy should not only be considered a social science but also a lifestyle; to better explain, philosophy is applicable in the daily routine as well as in the professional world making it both a theoretical and pragmatic. As a lifestyle, philosophers focused on how philosophy could be applicable to the daily life to improve one’s being. One of the main philosophies, still applicable today, and serves as guide for those looking for a healthier life is Confucianism. This philosophical ideology analyzes ethics,...
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...on Religion When it comes to the social institution of religion, the three major sociological theories differ in a majority of ways. All three have their own way of how they perceive religion functions in society. The purpose of this paper is to show the impact each theory has had on religion as well as the people inside the institution itself. Religion has been around for many hundreds of years and has had a great influence on many things in societies over time and across the world, such as politics, economics, and has even led to many wars. But how would one come about with a definition of the word religion? There are many different definitions out there of religion that are basic and even some definitions that get more complex. One basic and easy way to describe religion is a person or group of peoples set beliefs and practices on the concept of spirituality. J. Milton Yinger takes one of the more complex approaches to defining religion. He calls it “a system of beliefs and practices by which a group of people struggle with the ultimate problems of human life – problems relating to human morality, suffering, and injustice; and the need to infuse human life with meaning, and intellectual coherence, and the crucial importance of upholding moral percepts and patterns of social life” (Bouma p.4). Although both definitions seem to be drastically different, they actually do compliment each other and when used together can give us a much better understanding of religion and...
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...RELIGION AND ITS FUNCTION – THE FUNCTIONALIST AND CONLICT PERSPECTIVES PRIYANKA JHA 1530334 Religion is an organised collection of beliefs, cultural systems and world views that relate humanity to an order of existence. It exists in all societies but the beliefs and practise might differ. However, there are certain characteristics of religion like a set of symbols that invoke the feeling of awe and reverence, rituals and ceremonies and a community of believers or followers that all religion seem to share. The rituals and practices associated with a religion varies. Chanting, praying, singing, eating a particular food or refraining from doing so, fasting are some of the things which can be included in ritual acts. Religion is about the sacred...
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...One might ask, “What is an evolutionary theory?” as I have asked myself several times whilst conducting research for this essay. My conclusion is that it is, quite simply, a theory of evolution. The online Oxford Dictionary defines evolution as, “The gradual development of something.” (2012) The dictionary defines a theory as, “A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something…” Therefore, by using these two definitions, it can be said that a social evolutionary theory is a system of ideas intended to explain the gradual development of society. This question is vital in interpreting the purpose of this essay. The task at hand in completing this essay is to compare and contrast the social evolutionary theories of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. Before we analyze these theorist’s works, it is critical that we first look at the setting under which these men lived and worked. According to Ritzer (2011), Comte and Spencer both lived most of their lives during the 19th century. Comte lived from 1798 to 1857 while Spencer lived from 1820 to 1903. Comte and Spencer were from France and Britain respectively. The 18th and 19th centuries in Europe was characterized by widespread social change due to the Enlightenment period and the French Revolution. I think that this time period was the reason why social evolutionary theories were needed because of the extensive amount of change taking place in such a short time. There was a need for and a fascination with explanations...
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...Domenico Sano 1997 REL2000 04/15/2012 Chinese Culture; Taoism doctrine and religion Chinese culture involves many different religions and philosophies. A peculiarity of Chinese religions is that they are mutually exclusive and can be taken simultaneously for different functions throughout life. Each town has the religion inherited from the ancestors. This aphorism is widespread in China more than in other countries. Scholars say that primitive religion of the Chinese, and people leaving near them, was the ancestor worship, and the force of nature, which they thought themselves endowed with spirits. Confucianism and Taoism precisely these two primitive religions have obviously permeated both philosophical and religious systems more important in Chinese history. Taoism was created about 2500 years ago in China. Since its inception it has two complementary aspects: one related to social life, human relations, moral values and the government, on the other hand the mystic, which aims to transcend daily life and society, to obtain a higher plane of consciousness and become a sage, a visionary who has managed to merge and understand the universe. The sage is related in the spiritual and earthly events. Unites both aspects: the intuitive wisdom and practical knowledge or contemplation and social life. The Chinese for its tranquility compares with the image of the wise and their movements with the King’s image. In the sixth century BC, Chinese philosophy was developed in two...
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...is the distinction between Structural and Social action theories. Structural or macro perspectives analyses the way society as a whole fits together. Structural theory sees society as a system of relationships that creates the structure of the society in which we live. It is this structure that determines our lives and characters. Structured sets of social relationships are the 'reality' that lie below the appearance of 'the free individual' of western individualism. Structuralism focuses on the particular set of 'structural laws' that apply in any one society. Despite their differences, both functionalism and Marxism use a model of how society as a whole works. Many functionalists base their model of society around the assumption of basic needs and go to explain how different parts of society help to meet those needs. Marxists, on the other hand, see society as resting upon an economic base or infrastructure, with a superstructure above it. They see society as divided into social classes which have the potential to be in conflict with each other. However, the main differences between functionalist and Marxist perspectives then, is the way they characterize the social structure. Functionalists stress the extent to which the different elements of the social structure fit together harmoniously. Marxists stress the lack of fit between the different parts, particularly social classes, and so emphasize the potential for social conflict. Not all sociological...
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