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False Memory

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אוניברסיטת בר אילן
החוג המשולב למדעי החברה

הקשר בין זיכרון מסולף לשינה ולמצב רגשי

סקירה ספרותית
במסגרת הקורס: שיטות מחקר

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סקירה ספרותית

זיכרון מסולף או שיקרי קורה כאשר אדם זוכר מאורע אשר לא התרחש. מנקודת מבט מעשית, זיכרונות מסולפים הם איום לתוקפן של עדויות מפי עדי ראיה, מקור מוטעה למידע אוטוביוגרפי בפסיכותרפיה, והצגה מוטה של שיעורים בקונסטלציה לימודית (Reyna, V. F. et al. Cornell University 2006). זיכרון מסולף נבדק, בין היתר, באמצעות פרדיגמת DRM (Deese-Roediger–McDermott). בפרדיגמת DRM, הנחקרים לומדים רשימת מילים (לדוגמא : מיטה, מנוחה, ערות, חלום) אשר מתקשרות לנושא אחד (כלומר : שינה). כאשר הם נבחנים על זכירת המילים שלמדו, הנחקרים לעיתים קרובות שוגים ומציינים את מילת הנושא (Critical Target) כאחת מהמילים ברשימה. בחינת זיכרון מסולף נבדקה באמצעות פרדיגמת DRM במסגרת מחקרים שונים. דוגמא לכך ניתן למצוא במחקרן של קטרינה סוגרו והרלין היינה ( Sugrue, C. & Hayne, H. 2006), אשר בדק את ביצועיהם של ילדים ומבוגרים ברשימות מילים בעלות אורך משתנה (שבע מילים או ארבע-עשרה מילים). נמצא כי אצל ילדים ומבוגרים, זיכרון מסולף ניכר יותר ברשימות הארוכות מברשימות הקצרות. לימוד רשימות ארוכות של מילים הביא מבוגרים לשגות הרבה יותר, תוך שהם מציינים את מילת הנושא (CT) כמילה מתוך רשימת המילים שנלמדו, בעוד שאצל הילדים, שיעור המִשׁגֶה ברשימות הארוכות לא היה גדול בהרבה לעומת המשגה ברשימות הקצרות. מחקריהם של ריינה, וריינה וקירנן Reyna, 1995; Reyna & Kiernan, 1994)), אשר בדקו הבדלים בדיוק הזיכרון של ילדים לעומת מבוגרים, מצאו כי לילדים עלולה להיות הבנה פחותה של משמעותן העמוקה של מילים לא שכיחות, מה שימנע מהם לעמוד על הקשרן של מילים אלו, ובכך – תימָנע הופעת זיכרון שיקרי אצלם. עוד נמצא, כי זיכרון מסולף יכול להיווצר על ידי השתלת זיכרונות.
מחקריהם של אירה היימן, טרוי ה. האסבנד ו-פ. ג'יימס בילינגס (Hyman, I., Troy H. Husband, & Billings F. J. Western Washington University), העוסקים בהשתלת זיכרונות של אירועים שלא קרו, מראים כי סוגסטיה (שכנוע) יכולה להוות כלי להשתלת זיכרונות שקריים. בניסוי שנערך, נחקרים "זכרו" חוויות ילדות שלא קרו לאחר שתוקפן של אלה אושש על ידי בן משפחה. מחקרים שנערכו על ידי לין גוֹף והנרי ל. רודיגר (Goff, L., & Roediger H. L. Washington University ) ,מצאו כי ככל שנחקרים דמיינו (יותר) פעולות שלא ביצעו, גָדלה הסבירות שהם יזכרו את הפעולות ככאלה שהם ביצעו. ידועים מקרים של השתלת זיכרונות של אירועים שלא קרו, באמצעות היפנוזה. ב-1986 בוויסקונסין, נדין קול, אשר טופלה על ידי פסיכיאטר באמצעות היפנוזה, הגיעה לאמונה כי היא הדחיקה זיכרונות מהיותה חברה בכת שטנית, זיכרונות של אניסתה, של התנסותה בסקס עם חיות ואילוצה לצפות ברצח חברתה בת השמונה. מאוחר יותר, התברר לה כי זיכרונות אלה אינם שלה. במקרה נוסף, אשר אירע ב-1996, יועץ בכנסייה במיזורי "עזר" לבת' רודפורד להיזכר, במהלך הטיפול, שאביה נהג לאנוס אותה, ואף הכניס אותה להריון פעמיים, וחייב אותה לבצע הפלות באמצעות קולב. בדיקה רפואית שנערכה מאוחר יותר גילתה כי בת' רודפורד הייתה עדיין בתולה בגיל 22 (Loftus, E. F. 1997). ידוע, כי בעזרת היפנוזה ניתן לשתול זיכרונות של אירועים בראשו של אדם שלא חווה אותם. יחד עם זאת, ממצאי ניסוי שנערך על ידי ניקולס ספאנוס ושותפיו באוניברסיטת קארלטון (Spanos, N. et al. Carleton University ), הראו כי הטמעת זיכרונות כוזבים באדם אינה מחייבת תהליך של היפנוזה, וכי תהליך של הנחייה של נחקרים הביא להצלחה בהשתלת זיכרונות של אירועים שלא קרו, ואף באחוז גבוה מבתהליך של היפנוזה.
לא זאת בלבד, אלא שדי בטענה של אדם כי ראה אדם אחר מבצע פעולה, על מנת להוביל להודאה באשמה, אף על פי שהפעולה כלל לא בוצעה. כפי שהוכח במחקריהם של סאול מ. קסין ושותפיו באוניברסיטת וויליאמס (Kassin, S. M. et al. Williams College). גיבוש זיכרון מתייחס לתהליך בו הרושם הנוצר מזיכרון חדש, עובר ממצב לָבּילי (בלתי יציב) למצב יציב יותר, אשר עמיד להפרעות (לזיכרון מסולף). הדעה הרווחת היא כי שינה תורמת לגיבוש הזיכרון. מחקרים מצאו, כי קיים קשר בין זיכרון מסולף ושינה. נמצא כי בעוד שזיכרונות אמיתיים נחלשים במצב של ערות ובמצב של שינה גם יחד, זיכרונות שקריים נשמרים בשינה, ולמעשה לא נראית דעיכה משמעותית בהם לאחריה (Payne, J. D. et al. 2009). ידוע, כי חסך בשינה פוגע בתפקודים שונים, כגון וויסות המערכת החיסונית, חילוף חומרים וכן – תהליכים קוגניטיביים, כגון למידה ( Yoo et al. 2007 ). יחד עם זאת, מחקרים העוסקים בתפקידה של השינה בעיצוב מצב רוחנו – הם נדירים. זוהר ושותפיו ( Zohar, et al. 2005), אשר חקרו את השפעתן של הפרעות בשינה על תגובתיוּת למצבים שונים במקום העבודה, הראו כי מחסור בשינה הביא לריבוי בתגובות רגשיות שליליות, אשר הפריעו למהלכו התקין של היום, בעוד שפעילויות חיוביות, המתקשרות להשגת מטרות ולגמול, נזנחו. מצב רגשי יכול להשפיע לטובה על הזיכרון ולחזק אותו, או לפגום בו ולהחלישו. (Gray, 2001; Gray, Braver, & Raichle, 2002;Packard, Cahill, & McGaugh, 1994).
ניסוייהם של ג'סטין סטורבק וג'ראלד ל. קלור (Storbeck, J. & Clore, L. G. 2005) ביקשו לבדוק, תוך שימוש בפרדיגמת DRM, כיצד ובאיזו מידה משפיע מצב רגשי על הופעת זיכרון מסולף. החוקרים חילקו אוכלוסיית אנשים לשלוש קבוצות, ובאמצעות השמעת מוסיקה יצרו באחת הקבוצות תחושות שליליות, בקבוצה השנייה יצרו החוקרים תחושות חיוביות, ולקבוצת האנשים השלישית – לא הושמעה מוסיקה, והיא שימשה כקבוצת ביקורת. לאחר השמעת המוסיקה, נבחנו הנחקרים על רשימות מילים כמקובל בפרדיגמת DRM. תוצאות המבדקים העלו כי בעוד שבין שלוש הקבוצות לא ניכר הבדל משמעותי בזיכרונות האמתיים, בקבוצת האנשים בה חוללו החוקרים תחושות שליליות, הופעתו של זיכרון מסולף (כלומר, ציון ה – CT כאחת מהמילים ברשימה) הייתה פחותה, משמעותית, מבקבוצת האנשים בעלי התחושות החיוביות ואף מבקבוצת הביקורת. מכך עולה כי מצב רגשי ירוּד מפחית את הופעתו של זיכרון מסולף. על סמך מחקרים קודמים אלה, אשר בדקו ומצאו קשרים בין כמות ואיכות שינה לבין גיבושם של תהליכים קוגניטיביים ולמצב הרוח, ובין מצב רגשי בו שרוי אדם ליכולתו לזכור פרטים, הֶחלטתי, במחקר זה, (1) להתמקד בהשפעת השינה על הופעת זיכרון מסולף, (2) ולבחון את השפעתו של מצב רגשי על תכיפות הופעתו של זיכרון מסולף במבחני זיכרון על פי פרדיגמת DRM. מחקרים הראו, כי בתהליך של יצירת זיכרון חדש, חסך בשינה עלול להוביל לקשיים בלמידה ובזיכרון, ובכך לגרום להופעת זיכרון מסולף לגבי פרטים שנלמדו. יחד עם זאת, נמצא כי חוסר שינה מביא אדם למצב בו הוא נוח יותר להשפעת גירויים שליליים, אשר יגרמו לו למצב רגשי ירוּד. ממחקרים עולה כי מצב רגשי שלילי מפחית הופעתם של זיכרונות מסולפים.

במחקר זה יבָּחנו ההבדלים בתכיפות הופעת זיכרונות מסולפים בין שתי קבוצות אנשים, אשר נחשפו לגירויים שליליים, על מנת ליצור אצלם מצב רוח שלילי טרם בחינתם על זכירת רשימות מילים על פי פרדיגמת DRM, זאת כאשר רק מאחת הקבוצות נמנעה שינה במשך 35 שעות. הניסוי יכלול גם קבוצת ביקורת שבה לא יוצגו גירויים כלשהם, ושנתם של הנחקרים בה לא תופרע טרם המבחן. הנחָתי היא, כי בקבוצת הנחקרים שנחשפו לגירויים שליליים, על מנת להוריד את מצב רוחם, תכיפות הופעת זיכרונות מסולפים תהיה נמוכה מזו שבקבוצת הביקורת, וכי הנחקרים בקבוצה בה נמנעה השינה טרם המבחן, השרויים גם הם במצב רגשי ירוּד, יִשׁגו עוד פחות, ויציינו את ה – CT כמילה מתוך רשימת המילים שנלמדו, פעמים מעטות יותר מקבוצת הנחקרים אשר שנתם לא הופרעה.

ביבליוגרפיה

• Loftus, E. F. (1997). Creating False Memories. Scientific American, 277, 70-75. • Payne, J. D., Schacter, D. L., Propper, R. E., Huang, L. W., Wamsley, E. J., Tucker, M. A., Walker, M. P., & Stickgold, R. (2009). The role of sleep in false memory formation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 92 (2009) 327-334. • Reyna, V. F., Mills, B., Estrada, S., & Brainerd, C. J. (2006). False Memory in Children: Data, Theory, and Legal Implications. Cornell University. • Storbeck, J., & Clore, G. L. (2005). With Sadness Comes Accuracy; With Happiness, False Memory : Mood and the False Memory Effect. Psychological Science 2005 16: 785. • Sugrue, K., & Hayne, H. (2006). False Memories Produced by Children and Adults in DRM Paradigm. Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. • Walker, P. M. (2009). The Role of Sleep in Cognition and Emotion. • Yoo, S., Gujar, N., Hu, P., Jolesz, F. A., & Walker, M. P. (2007). Current Biology, Volume 17, Issue 20, R877-R878, 23 October 2007.

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...When dealing with children or adolescents who have suffered or is suffering abuse, the role of the counsellor is extremely important, including the way the counsellor initiates the discussion of the abuse, to the environment in which the discussion is taking place. It is essential the counsellor does not lead the child into admitting something that has not actually happened, where they have been led to believe this is the answer that the counsellor, or potentially the family, wants. False memory syndrome is a vital aspect to be taken into consideration, as the child may become convinced that something has happened to them, when it fact it has not. Therefore, the counsellor should ensure that instead of insinuating that there is something occurring...

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Lhkh

...1. Pranatipat: In short, this papasthanak means to cause violence upon someone or something, this can be caused by our physical or mental activities. An example would be deliberately calling someone names or hunting other animals as an activity. 2. Mrushivad: This papasthanak means speaking of falsehood, or in other words lies. Usually lies can come as a result of greed, anger or even mischievous. An example would be giving someone false information, or telling your friends a lie out of jealousy. 3. Adattadana: In all, this papasthanak means stealing. An example would be cheating someone some money which was not deserved for you. Or another example would be taking clothes from a store without paying. 4. Maithuna: This means to engage in sexual activities. In Jainism, there is no space for sexual relationships because sensual desires bring bad karma. An example would be degrade a women by secretly calling her pretty or hot to your friends, all behind her back. 5. Parigraha: This means to have an attachment for articles or wealth. An example would be of someone owning more pair of shoes than they really need. For example they would have 7 pair of shoes, when, in reality, all they need for everyday work is just 2. 6. Krodha: In short, this papasthanak means to have or obtain anger. An example of this would be having unnecessary anger, for example having your favorite sports team lose and then become mad at not only the team, but also your surrounding environment...

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Summary Of National Geographic's 'Searching For The Real Cleopatra'

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Elizabeth Loftus: Biography and False Memoires

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The Practical Application of the Age of Criminal Responsibilities

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