...1.1 Introduction If we ask a number of people what marketing is, they will answer the question in various ways. Marketing involves more activities than most people might imagine. Although a single definition of marketing does not exist, there are a few definitions that have been widely approved. And one of them is given by The American Marketing Association (AMA). It defines marketing as "a process for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging ideas, goods and services, establishing their prices, promotion and distribution, in order to satisfy the goals of customers, clients, partners, and society at large". This definition emphasises the marketing focus on planning and performing marketing activities in order to satisfy the customers’ needs and wants. Today, marketing must not be interpreted by considering it in its old nature of "making and selling" but, instead, by referring to its new meaning which focuses on the satisfaction of customers' needs and wants. Sales cannot be performed before creating a product. Marketing starts long before a product is created by a company. It encompasses activities carried out by managers in order to assess the wants, define their scope, and find out whether profits are possible or not. Marketing activities continue over the entire lifetime of a product, trying to attract new clients and keep the existing ones by improving the product's quality and appeal, using the insights into sales results and the management of repeated orders...
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...Patient history Doctors often begin their examination of a patient suspected of having dementia by asking questions about the patient's history. For example, they may ask how and when symptoms developed and about the patient's overall medical condition. They also may try to evaluate the patient's emotional state, although patients with dementia often may be unaware of or in denial about how their disease is affecting them. Family members also may deny the existence of the disease because they do not want to accept the diagnosis and because, at least in the beginning, AD and other forms of dementia can resemble normal aging. Therefore additional steps are necessary to confirm or rule out a diagnosis of dementia. Physical examination A physical examination can help rule out treatable causes of dementia and identify signs of stroke or other disorders that can contribute to dementia. It can also identify signs of other illnesses, such as heart disease or kidney failure, that can overlap with dementia. If a patient is taking medications that may be causing or contributing to his or her symptoms, the doctor may suggest stopping or replacing some medications to see if the symptoms go away. Neurological evaluations Doctors will perform a neurological examination, looking at balance, sensory function, reflexes, and other functions, to identify signs of conditions - for example movement disorders or stroke - that may affect the patient's diagnosis or are treatable with drugs. Cognitive...
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...Mind Readers: By Phillip Ross Phillip Ross, contributing editor of Scientific American magazine, writes an article of a potential way to scan a brain and interpret thoughts as well as separate the truth from falsity. He starts off the article, imagining a world where one could see through to the truth. “Human society would be orderly, boring and as alien as an anthill,” he notes. If only there was a machine to read others’ minds… There is such a machine, but to some extent, can only measure anxiety, taken to mean as a lie. This machine, the polygraph, also known as the “lie detector”, only can hint whether a subject is lying. Critics say that the polygraph is flawed because of false positives (an honest answer is mistaken for a lie) and false negatives (a lie is overlooked as a truth). Furthermore, the polygraph is not permitted to use as evidence in the legal system; the National Research Council even called the device “blunt”. There must be a better way to achieve successful end results in looking at others’ thought processes. Ross names famous philosophers and scientists investigating the same problem. Greek philosopher Diogenes went about his life carrying a lamp to look for an honest man in what he thought was a corrupt society. Ross argues that instead of looking for clues of deception on the outside of one’s body (like sweating or breathing irregularly, as found in the polygraph), it is better to look inside one’s brain. There you can not only tell a truth...
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...Many people wonder how psychologists know that a particular part of the brain is associated with a certain function. Researchers have used different techniques to study the brain. Researching the brain is not new. Back in the 1800s, phrenology was a popular technique. Phrenology was a procedure that used bumps on an individual’s head to determine and predict personality characteristics. Unfortunately, it is not very accurate. We have found more reliable information from lesions in the brain. A lesion is the natural or intentional destruction of brain tissue. Knowing what happens when a part of the brain is damaged or destroyed is a key to knowing its function when it works correctly. In 1848, a railroad worker named Phineas Gage FIGURE 3- 10 suffered an accident when an explosion drove a 1-pound steel rod straight through his head, destroying much of the front part of his brain. Some of the reports after the accident suggested that his personality was altered. Gage’s case underscores the fact that examining lesions is an important way to study the functions of various parts of the nervous system. Today, more sophisticated technologies are employed to study and treat the brain. For example, electrical stimulation of the brain is a technique used to stimulate neural FIGURE 3- 10 Phineas Gage suffered an accident that damaged his frontal lobe. Phrenology A procedure that uses bumps on an individual’s head to determine and predict personality characteristics...
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...Carole Commodore BME 100 Problem Set 4 Stony Brook ID: 109371838 Question 1 A. (8 pts) Explain in a few sentences why structural and functional MRI images are often overlaid in fMRI studies, instead of just collecting functional images (just fMRI data). Be sure to include the major difference between the images created by these two methods. Structural and functional MRI image are often overlaid in fMRI studies instead of collecting just the functional MRI data because these overlaid diagrams provide a more comprehensive images of what is occurring in the body. The purpose of the structural images is to portray a static image of the organ, the tissue or the area. The functional fMRI images are a representation of an organ that specifically...
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...This article describes how magnetic resonance is helping to discover how the brain works in different ways. (MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging helps to find brain tumors, and also helps to discover damage in the brain after a stroke. (MRS) Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy helps to find the type of tumor without using biopsies, diagnosing coma, dementia, stroke, etc. (fMRI) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging used in guidance for guidance to brain surgeons, and used to map brain functions. In other words, these techniques are helping neuroscientist to explore the brain. One of the particular case that they mentioned is the case of Phineas Gage. A man in 1848 that worked at the rail road had a dramatic head injury. An iron road went from his...
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...contrast x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (also known as MRI), positron emission tomography (also known as PET), and in my opinion the best way of studying the brain; functional MRI.” Unlike using just MRI to visualize the brain; functional MRI is a great way to study the activity of the brain, while being able to visualize the brain. When using just a magnetic response imaging machine to study the brain, the only great thing about using it is being able to visualize what is going on in an individual’s brain. For example; if someone were to have an appointment to look at their brain, to determine whether or not they have a tumor; this type of method would be a great method to use. The reason I say this is because an MRI machine is able to visualize if there is anything growing inside the brain. While an MRI may be a great method to use for this type of procedure; a functional MRI would be able to not only visualize what is growing in the brain; it would be able to show the doctor the activity of the tumor and other activity in the brain. As stated in Biopsychology 8 Ch5, “Functional MRI produce images representing the increase in oxygen flow in the blood to active areas in the brain.” Another great aspect of Functional MRI’s are that unlike other methods used to study the brain; they are a UN invasive way to study the brain. Invasive procedures to visualize and study the brain are very dangerous to an individual and can cause many problems with the brain. Functional MRI’s are...
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...Scientific Article 1 Intro to Psychology Risk-takers are smarter according to new study In a recent study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), images taken of the brains of young men revealed major differences in what is called “white matter” between two separate groups of participants. The University of Turku in Finland under the direction of SINTEF claims young men that make quick decisions in risky situations have a highly developed neural network and are “smarter” than low risktakers. First each participant was given a personality test to assess the risk-taking propensity and susceptibility to peer influence. By doing this the researcher was able to separate the 17 right-handed, 18-19 year old males into two groups, high and low risk takers. The two groups reported to the Department of Radiology of the Turku University Hospital for two practice sessions. During the sessions they were shows a driving game with sets of 20 stop-light intersections. They learned how to play the game and then reported back for four testing sessions in an MRI scanner. The first two sessions were performed under a non-competition social setting and the last two sessions by surprise were under social pressure of a peer competition situation. Measurements were taken of the participants at each moment that decisionmaking took place wether to stop at the yellow light or try and make it through. Results showed that high risk-takers didn't hesitate for long before they...
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...The role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in Diagnoses of Pituitary Gland Name: Institution: The role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in Diagnoses of Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is an important part of the body because it controls several hormonal glands such as adrenals and the thyroid. The gland is a nearly the size of a pea and has two parts referred to as the lobes (Maya & Pressman, 2010). The front part is the anterior pituitary while the back part is the posterior pituitary. The pituitary gland is part of a bony hollow called the pituitary fossa behind the bridge of the nose and below the brain’s base near the optic nerves. Maya and Pressman (2010) add that the pituitary gland is the most important part of the system because it produces hormones controlling the functions of other endocrine glands. The most common problem occurring in the pituitary gland is the development of a benign growth or tumor. The tumor causes the gland to secrete excess hormone, blocks its production or causes it to malfunction. Other causes of pituitary disorders include traumatic brain injury and pituitary infarction. Although pituitary disorder are able to alter quality of a person’s life significantly, medical or surgical treatment is available where efficient diagnosis is made. The present study investigates the role of imaging modalities in the evaluation of pituitary gland disorders. Particular emphasis is laid on the role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in diagnosing...
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...the left and right hemispheres. These methods include the sodium amytal test, the dichotic listening test, and functional brain imaging moreover, the relation between handedness and language lateralization method. In the sodium amytal test, patients’ language abilities are assessed by a neurosurgeon before going into surgery. In the sodium amytal test, sodium amytal is injected into the carotid artery on a side of the neck (Pinel, 2009). The injection anesthetizes the hemisphere on that side for a few minutes, which allows capacities of the other hemisphere to be properly assessed (Pinel, 2009). In the dichotic listening test, "Three pairs of spoken digits are presented through earphones; the digits of each pair are presented simultaneously, one to each ear" (Pinel, 2009). An example of this process may be a subject maybe hearing a particular sequence 3, 9, 2 through one ear and at the same time 1, 6, 4 through the other ear; and then the subject will be asked to report all the digits at the end of the sequence. The test reveals that the left hemispere is the one that most people show dominance in because they hear slightly better in their right ear. In functional brain imaging, while the subject engages in some activity, such as reading, the activity of the brain is monitored by positron emission tomography (PET) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Pinel, 2009). The relation between handedness and language lateralization is the final method of cerebral...
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...lateralization to study the functions of the right and left hemisphere of the brain. These methods include the sodium amytal test, the dichotic listing test, and functional brain imaging. The forth method of cerebral lateralization is comparing the effects of unilateral left and right hemisphere brain lesions. The sodium amytal test is a language lateralization that is given to patients before neurosurgery. During this test the patient is injected with a small amount of sodium amytal into the carotid artery on one side of the neck. The injection anesthetizes the hemisphere on that side for a few minutes, thus allowing the capacities of the other hemisphere to be assessed (Pinel, 2011). The patients are then asked to recite things such as numbers or letters to see if they still have the ability to speak. The dichotic listening test is a noninvasive test. This test can also be given to health people. In the standard dichotic listening test, three pairs of spoken numbers are presented through earphones; the numbers of each pair are presented simultaneously, one to each ear (Pinel, 2011). Then the individual is asked to repeat the numbers that they heard. In functional brain imaging, an individual reads or performs some kind of activity and the brain is examined by positron emission tomography or functional magnetic resonance imaging. The fourth method of studying cerebral lateralization of functioning is comparing the effects of unilateral left and right hemisphere brain lesions. This...
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...There are numerous ways in studying methods of the brain. It ranges from electrical and chemical stimulation, recordings of the electrical activity from the brain, scanning and imaging techniques, and so on. The effects of electrical and chemical stimulation take place within different places in the brain that selectively affect specific psychological processes as well as psychologically active medications; anesthetics and recreational drugs). These selectively affect different mental processes because they act on the brain in different brain systems. Small amounts of psychologically active chemicals can be injected into small parts of the brain. These experimental ways have helped identify the location and function of brain systems that carry out the effects of these chemicals. Through electrical stimulation, we can only stimulate the desired part of the brain. The advances in technology have made it possible to study the internal work of the brain without having to cut into an individual’s skull. The brain scanning is the mechanical and electrical measurements of the specific activates of the brain. One example I am familiar with of a scanning technique is the MRI, or magnetic resonance imaging. It uses a magnetic field in which the individual’s head is put in place. The radio waves aimed in the brain cause certain atoms within the brain to emit signals which the computer picks up. These studying techniques can distinguish between closely related brain structures. There...
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...3% to 6% of school-aged children (Council on Scientific Affairs, 1989) 4% of school-aged children (DSM-IV, 1994). 40% to 70% of those participating in prison programs ("Dyslexia and the adult learner," 1994). 60% and more of those in adult literacy programs ("Dyslexia and the adult learner," 1994). 40% to 60% of those in basic adult education programs 3% to 6% of school-aged children (Council on Scientific Affairs, 1989) 4% of school-aged children (DSM-IV, 1994). 40% to 70% of those participating in prison programs ("Dyslexia and the adult learner," 1994). 60% and more of those in adult literacy programs ("Dyslexia and the adult learner," 1994). 40% to 60% of those in basic adult education programs Mark Waluk Eckert AP Psych/Per 1 6 November 2012 Mark Waluk Eckert AP Psych/Per 1 6 November 2012 DYSLEXIA DYSLEXIA Effect On Society Effect On Society Diagnosis Before diagnosing Dyslexia, the health care provider will: Perform a complete medical exam, including a neurological exam Ask questions about the person's developmental, social, and school performance Ask if anyone else in the family has had dyslexia Psychoeducational testing and psychological assessment may be done. AGE AT ONSET: Usually apparent by age 7 (2nd grade), sometimes age 6 (1st grade) DSM-III, 1987). Sometimes up to age 9 if a Developmental Reading Disorder is compensated for in school (DS-III-R, 1987). Diagnosis Before diagnosing Dyslexia, the health...
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...There are numerous ways in studying methods of the brain. It ranges from electrical and chemical stimulation, recordings of the electrical activity from the brain, scanning and imaging techniques, and so on. The effects of electrical and chemical stimulation take place within different places in the brain that selectively affect specific psychological processes as well as psychologically active medications; anesthetics and recreational drugs). These selectively affect different mental processes because they act on the brain in different brain systems. Small amounts of psychologically active chemicals can be injected into small parts of the brain. These experimental ways have helped identify the location and function of brain systems that carry out the effects of these chemicals. Through electrical stimulation, we can only stimulate the desired part of the brain. The advances in technology have made it possible to study the internal work of the brain without having to cut into an individual’s skull. The brain scanning is the mechanical and electrical measurements of the specific activates of the brain. One example I am familiar with of a scanning technique is the MRI, or magnetic resonance imaging. It uses a magnetic field in which the individual’s head is put in place. The radio waves aimed in the brain cause certain atoms within the brain to emit signals which the computer picks up. These studying techniques can distinguish between closely related brain structures. There...
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...Lopez, Jeb Benedict C. January 7, 2013 PD – IB Ms. Rubillos Psychology 1.) Is there any evidence to suggest which hemisphere of Tim’s brain suffered damage during the stroke? Yes. The left hemisphere of Tim’s brain is damaged because much of the right side of Tim’s body got paralyzed. 2.) What imaging technology would best reveal the location and extent of damage to Tim’s brain produced by his stroke, and why? The Functional magnetic resonance because with the fMRI, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain allowing you to locate and know the extent of damage produced by the stroke. 3.) If physicians did not have any means of viewing the damage to Tim’s brain directly, what other clues might they have to the location of the damage? Where might the damage be if Tim had lost his vision after the stroke? Where might it be if he lost sensation on the left side of his body? Where might it be if his personality suddenly changed? Physicians can look for signs, differences and problems of the patient and use their knowledge to determine which particular part of the brain has been damaged. If Tim lost vision, then the damage should be in the occipital lobe. If Tim lost sensation in the left side of the body, then the damage is in the right hemisphere of the brain. If Tim’s personality changed, then the damage would be in the Association areas of the Cerebral Cortex. 4.) Explain how the endocrine system played...
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