...What are Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons? Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of toxic organic compounds. These organic contaminants are often byproducts of the processing of crude oil or incomplete combustion consisting of many aromatic rings joined together. (1) Occurrence of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Foods PAHs tend to be Lipophilic in nature and there occurrence in foods can be linked to contamination by soil, water and/or air or from cooking practices at home such as roasting, grilling smoking etc.(2) High temperatures and exposure to sunlight decreases the concentration in food substances. There are over 500 PAHs but only 15 have been identified that affect foods. Figure 1 shows a list of the fifteen PAHs along with their structures. (see appendix) Sources of airborne PAHs are forest fires and volcanoes. The most important stationary anthropogenic sources include residential burning of wood, oil, gas and charcoal as well as industrial power generation, incineration, production of aluminium, iron and steel, petroleum catalytic cracking and production of asphalt, coal tar and coke. The most important mobile sources are vehicular exhausts from gasoline and diesel-powered engines. In combustion processes the formation of PAHs is reduced when combustion is more thoroughly performed but this will increase the formation of nitrogen oxides. . Formation of PAHs The formation of PAHs in foods is varied based...
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...The Importance of Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons, organic chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen molecules, are one the world’s most crucial energy resources, derived from petroleum, natural gas, and coal. They are utilized as fuels, lubricants, electrical power generation, heating, and as raw materials to make plastics, fibers, rubbers, solvents, explosives, and industrial chemicals. Hydrocarbons are an abundant, as well as efficient resource. Also, contrary to common belief, extraction of these resources is relatively safe for the environment. The oceans that border the United States contain an astounding amount of oil and natural gas that is not being utilized. This is due to areas having restricted exploration and drilling access. The restricted areas along the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the eastern Gulf of Mexico hold more than 19 billion barrels of oil, almost thirty years’ worth of what is currently being imported from Saudi Arabia. The estimated amount of oil increases as areas are explored. The Pacific Ocean is believed to have the greatest potential. Hydrocarbons are a very efficient resource. They have a very high calorific value, the value of the amount of energy produced, with fossil fuels having the highest. Since fossil fuels produce such a high amount of energy and are easily combustible, they have been popularized all over the world. Most combustion engines need only small amounts of fuel to create large amounts of energy, while energy from alternative...
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...Streams deposit large sediment loads from continental erosion which must accumulate to thicknesses from at least 300 feet to over 40,000 feet. At these depths, temperatures are high enough for oil and natural gas to form. Geologic features including folds, faults, shell reefs, volcanic structures, and diapirs (intrusions of a dense and fairly mobile mass into a less dense mass forming anticlines that can trap hydrocarbons) are barriers in which sediments can collect rapidly on the continental shelf, slope, and rise. However, the hydrocarbon deposits necessary for petroleum to form can only occur in conditions in which organic material exceeds the amount of oxygen available to oxidize it. Favorable conditions for petroleum formation processes can be found in sedimentary basins on the continental margins and at the orogenic belts where tectonic plate convergence and subduction are occurring. The subduction in these areas can provide traps for hydrocarbon accumulation as well as the high temperatures necessary to transform organic matter into liquid are gaseous hydrocarbons. These favorable environments only occur in the oceans at the continental margins where almost all of the petroleum in the ocean can be found. In fact, almost every continent has margins in which giant oil and gas fields (reserves that have at least an estimated 500...
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...CHAPTER 12 HYDROCARBONS 12.2 Alkenes Learning Outcomes At the end of this topic, students should be able to: a) Describe alkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n, n≥2. (b) Draw the structures and name the compunds according to the IUPAC nomenclature for: i) straight chain and branched alkenes (parent chain ≤ C10) ii) cyclic alkenes (C3-C6) iii) simple dienes (C4-C6) 2 Learning Outcomes At the end of this topic, students should be able to: c) Show the preparation of alkenes through: i) dehydration of alcohols ii) dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes d) Write the mechanism for c(i) e) State Saytzeff’s Rule. f) Deduce the major product of elimination reaction. 3 Alkenes - General formula CnH2n , n 2. - Functional group C=C double bond - Unsaturated hydrocarbon - C═C 1 σ bond and 1 π bond A B C=C A B Restricted rotation of carbon-carbon double bond causes cis-trans isomerism 4 Alkenes Cycloalkenes - General formula CnH2n-2 - Isomeric to alkynes CnH2n-2 Example : C4H6 CH2 CH CH2 Functional group isomerism CH CH3C – CCH3 5 Alkenes Common Names Of Alkenes Many older names for alkenes are still in use … example: CH2 CH3 CH2 ethene ethylene CH2 CH CH3 CH2 2–methylpropene isobutylene CH3 CH3 propene propylene C CH3 C CH CH2 2–methylbut-1,3-diene 6 isoprene Alkenes IUPAC...
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...source rock must contain abundant organic matter. The organic material liquefies during the heating event, converting to hydrocarbon in the process. The first hydrocarbons to form are called Kerogen, which consists of carbon (69–80%), hydrogen (7-11%), Nitrogen (1.25-2.5%), Sulfur (1-8%) and Oxygen (9-17%). Kerogen becomes crude oil when the oxygen and nitrogen are removed in some manner. The Petroleum System consists of a mature source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of these elements and the processes of generation, migration and accumulation are necessary for hydrocarbons to accumulate and be preserved. The formation of hydrocarbon liquids from an organic rich source rock with kerogen and bitumen to accumulates as oil or gas. Generation depends on: the presence of organic matter rich enough to yield hydrocarbons, adequate temperature, and sufficient time to bring the source rock to maturity. Pressure and the presence of bacteria and catalysts also affect generation. Generation is a critical phase in the development of a petroleum system. Petroleum Generation:- A source rock is one rich in organic matter which heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil prone. During the oil generation process, and simultaneous with the increase of the hydrocarbon/noncarbonate carbon ratio, the composition of the shale normal paraffins and naphthenes boiling above 325°C gradually changes...
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...plume samples. This changed when the well was capped and the group that dominated was methanotrophs or oil-degraders. None of the initial groups were found in the surface water samples, instead bacteria such as Alphaproteobacteria and Cyanobacteria were found to be the most abundant organisms in these collected samples. This suggests that the temperature of the water plays a direct role in how the microbial community responds to hydrocarbons. Another defense for the role of temperature would be the abundance of growth of Colwellia when incubated at 4oC compared to the minimal growth when incubated at room temperature. In laboratory conditions, Colwellia was the main organism that incorporated Carbon 13 in SIP experiments and given its abundance in the sample, it is likely that Colwellia was active in ethane and propane oxidation in situ. Colwellia was also capable of incorporating Carbon 13 benzene, and its abundance in crude oil without natural gas suggests that Colwellia has a wide range of abilities to be able to degrade multiple kinds of hydrocarbons. The fact that Colwellia could grow from ethane and propane, and to a lesser extent, Oceanospirillales, suggests that the high natural gas content in the spill was advantageous to the organisms. * Impact Factor * The impact factor for the journal in 2013, PNAS or Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, is 9.809. * Importance of the published work in the field * ...
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...not including CO(g), CO2(g), and HCN(g) hydrocarbon a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms saturated hydrocarbon a hydrocarbon with only single covalent bonds between its carbon atoms alkane a saturated hydrocarbon H H C H (a) H (b) Figure 2 Two representations of the methane molecule: (a) the structural formula and (b) the ball-and-stick model 8 Chapter 1 • Organic Compounds Alkanes Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. As a general definition, an organic compound is a molecular compound containing carbon with the exception of carbon monoxide, CO(g), carbon dioxide, CO2(g), and hydrogen cyanide, HCN(g). Since carbon has 4 valence electrons, its atoms tend to form 4 covalent bonds. Carbon atoms ofen bond with one another to form chains. Tese chain struc- tures become the backbones of a range of molecules, some of them very complex. Carbon-based molecules are the building blocks for life on Earth. Most fuels are hydrocarbons, whose molecules consist only of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Hydrocarbon fuels include natural gas, gasoline, fuel oil, and diesel fuel. NASCAR racing cars burn an unleaded fuel similar to that used in most cars on the street (Figure 1). Natural gas, which is pri- marily methane, is a major fuel for electric power plants. Butane and propane are used to heat homes and to fuel tools such as soldering torches. Figure 1 Hydrocarbons are sources of fuel all over the world. ...
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...rocks to be cracked or broken apart which thus releases the gas inside them into the tiny cracks created. Furthermore, the gas and oil is then collected and placed in large storage tanks for distribution and use. The chemicals used in fracking are a large amount (up to 600), however the main chemicals used by fracking companies are; water, sand, salt, citric acid, and benzene or lead. These chemicals are noted to be particularly hazardous and dangerous if not used completely correctly which makes us question the complete safety of fracking fluid. The methane (natural gas) used in fracking is known as an alkane, which are group or series of hydrocarbons that...
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...algebra… numerical: calculus Well testing: testing the well to see how big the resovoire is Pvt analysis of reservoir fluids: phase how temp and press effects oil and gas, Reserves estimates: how much oil can we get from the well Economic modeling how do I know that 100ft of oil is going to be partial RE’s use: Geology, geophysics, physics, petrophysics, chemistry, thermodynamics, engineering mechanics, mathematics, statistics, economics, finance/accounting. Typical questions: how much oil? How much can we take out? How can we improve recovery? What rate will this well produce? What is the production forecast for this well? What are the SEC proves reserves? Hydrocarbons in place: (Constant*area*thickness*prosity*(1-water saturation))/ fluid formation volume factor Formation volume factor: how much a hydrocarbon swells when exposed to sea level atmosphere Thickness, porosity and water saturation are found by petrophysicists. Rate: Darcy’s law => k=permeability Rocks with permeability of 1 darcy collates to… Permeability: how thick, pressure change (Pe-Pw), Mu viscocity, Material balance: law of conservation of mass, if I know what my pressure change is and how much oil and gas ive taken out a reservoir I can estimate how big a reservoir is. * Tank model equation * Good for deep water It all comes together into something called the radial diffusivity...
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...Nowadays, the oil spills has become the most dangerous to the human and also wildlife. Oil spills is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment. It has causes many effect to the environment. The effect of oil spills are damaging wildlife biology, harmful to the human body and threaten commercial fisheries and aquaculture. First, the oil spills damage the wildlife biology. Oil can impair a bird ability to fly and preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their environmental balance. Some studies that was conducted by World Wildlife Fund (WWF) found that, less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive even after cleaning although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent. Thus, oil spills are very bad to the wildlife in the environment. Other than that, the oil spills also are very harmful to the human body. The composition of crude oil contains Volatile Organic Compound (VOCs), which are very harmful to human nervous system. As the oil directed skin contact, people may easily get the desease such as irritation and skin cancer. Therefore, peoples must prevent from doing the oil spills activities as it may harmful to the human body. Last but not least, the oils spills also will affect commercial fisheries and aquaculture. Oils spills causes serious damage to fishery through physical contamination, toxic affects on stock and discrupting business activities. As a result...
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...What is an environment stating the different kinds/types, define crude oil and liquid bulk giving examples The environment is the aggregate of surrounding things, conditions or influences, milieu etc. The types of environment include natural, business, social and cultural aspects. Crude Oil is a natural product of the mixing of the environmental Spheres. It occurs through the decay of biosphere components and its interaction with the other spheres. This natural mixing produces hydrocarbons which can after retrieval can be refined into diesels, gasoline, heating oil’s etc. Liquid bulk is the term used to define all items with mass which mass have an incompressible fluid form. This form conforms to the shape of its container but retain the same volume independent of pressure. In shipping terms this fluid is poured into large tank spaces known as hold in tankers. Some types of liquid bulk cargo are crude oil, chemicals and liquefied natural gas. Based on the definition of environment, state the positive effects of developing a crude oil port. A crude oil port is a transition station in which crude oil is taken from liquid bulk cargo and kept in storage facilities at the port until transported by bulk oil trucks to various destinations. Crude oil is a flammable substance. Therefore it needs to be transported and transferred between transportation modes. The positives of having a port is that crude oil ports are specifically made to handle this type of gas. In addition...
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...components, which is where the oil refinery comes in. The US Gulf Coast has the largest concentration of refineries in the world. It is from the refinery that we get transportation fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. It is also where we get raw materials for the chemical industry. For the production of plastics we get naphtha, which are 5 to 9 carbon chains that can be used as the raw material in a plant to make ethylene and benzene. Benzene and ethylene are subsequently reacted in another plant to make styrene. Refineries are large, energy-intensive plants which have a significant environmental impact. They generate greenhouse gases due to their high energy use, many refineries, particularly older ones, have had issues with hydrocarbon contamination of surrounding soil and water, and all refineries have had periods of volatile organic compound (VOC’s) releases to the atmosphere. And while we don’t use the...
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...amounts of benzene can be used to make a wide range of materials. However benzene is a known carcinogen (chemical that causes cancer) .so continual exposure of this carcinogen benzene vapour can result in leukaemia. Benzene has a rather dull appearance as it appears as a colourless liquid although it does have a sweet odour. It is also highly flammable and is formed in human activities and natural processes. It evaporates in to air very quickly and dissolves slightly in water. Natural sources of benzene include forest fires and volcanoes. Benzene is also a component of crude oil, petrol and cigarette smoke. Structure of benzene • Benzene is a flat molecule with 6 carbons atoms bonded together in a Planar ring so is also a cyclic hydrocarbon. • Each carbon is covalently joined to two other carbons and one hydrogen. So there are 3 covalent bonds all together. • The remaining outer electron of each carbon is shared with the other carbons in the ring. The six electrons are delocalised around the ring this gives stability to the structure and hold it in place. • All bond lengths are the same. • IT ALSO IS COLOULERLESS SO IS NOT VERY USEFUL AND IS EXTREMLY EXPLOSIVE AND HAS LOW FLAMIBILITY Kekule structure of benzene Kekule was the first to suggest a sensiSSble structure for benzene. The carbons are arranged in a hexagon, and he suggested alternating double and single bonds between them. Each carbon atom has hydrogen attached to it. However the problem with this model...
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...Used Cooking Oil as an Additive Component of Candle | AbstractThe study aims to produce a low-priced, high-quality candle by using used cooking oil as a major component. The following candle compositions were used: 100 percent paraffin wax; 90 percent paraffin and 10 percent oil; 80 percent paraffin and 20 percent oil; 70 percent paraffin and 30 percent oil; 60 percent paraffin and 40 percent oil; 50 percent paraffin and 50 percent oil. The firmness, texture, and light intensity of the candles were tested and compared.Results of the tests showed that the candle made from 100 percent paraffin wax had the lowest melting rate, lowest amount of melted candle, and a light intensity of 100 candelas (cd). The 90:10 preparation had the next lowest melting rate and amount of melted candle. The other preparations ranked according to the proportion of used cooking oil in the candle, with the 50:50 preparation performing least comparably with the 100 percent paraffin wax candle.IntroductionToday, candles are made not only for lighting purposes but for many other uses such as home décor, novelty collections, as fixtures for big occasions (weddings, baptismals, etc.), and as scented varieties for aromatherapy. Candles are made from different types of waxes and oils.Cooking oil is a major kitchen item in Filipino households. It is also used substantially in fast-food outlets, where it is used in different stages of food preparations. Ordinarily, used cooking oil is discarded. This waste...
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...Naming Alkenes Suffix: -ene Many of the same rules for alkanes apply to alkenes 1. Name the parent hydrocarbon by locating the longest carbon chain that contains the double bond and name it according to the number of carbons with the suffix -ene. H 3C CH2 C H 3C CH2 CH2 CH2 H 3C CH2 CH2 H 3C CH2 C CH2 Parent = pentene not hexene (does not contain double bond) 2. a. Number the carbons of the parent chain so the double bond carbons have the lowest possible numbers. H 3C 6 CH2 CH2 CH 5 4 3 CH 2 CH3 1 2-hexene b. If the double bond is equidistant from each end, number so the first substituent has the lowest number. CH3 H 3C 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH CH2 4 5 CH3 6 2-methyl-3-hexene 3. Write out the full name, numbering the substituents according to their position in the chain and list them in alphabetical order. 4. Indicate the double bond by the number of the first alkene carbon. H 3C 6 CH2 CH2 CH 5 4 3 CH 2 CH3 1 2-hexene 5. If more than one double bond is present, indicate their position by using the number of the first carbon of each double bond and use the suffix -diene (for 2 double bonds), -triene (for 3 double bonds), -tetraene (for 4 double bonds), etc. H 2C 1 CH CH2 CH CH2 5 2 3 4 H 2C 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH CH3 5 4 1,4-pentadiene 1,3-pentadiene 6. a. Cycloalkenes are named in a similar way. Number the cycloalkene so the double bond carbons get numbers 1 and 2, and the first substituent is the lowest possible number. CH3 3 2 1 5 4 3 CH3 6 1 2 3-methylcyclohexene ...
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