...Al-Andalus Arabic Lit 1121 Al-Andalus Al-Andalus was referred to as the areas of the Iberian Peninsula which were occupied by the Moors between 711-1492 AD. The Iberian Peninsula is the south western most part of Europe including Spain, Portugal, and France. The Moors were Muslim people of Arab descent who invaded or settled Al-Andalus from Northern Africa. Before the Moors came to the Iberian Peninsula, Spain was ruled under the Visigoths. Their kingdom quickly fell apart when the Moors first came to what is now referred to as Spain. When the Moors came they were actually welcomed and did not have much trouble taking over due to the worsening environment the Visigoths reign had established. Abd ar-Rahman the 1st was the founder of the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba. He was the grandson of the tenth Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. At the age of 16, He fled his home city of Damascus due to the Abbasid revolt, which over threw the existing Umayyad caliphate. He fled from Damascus and made his way west to what was once land of the far reaching Umayyad Dynasty. It took him several years to reach Northern Africa because he was still being targeted by the newly established Abbasid dynasty. Al-Andalus had been conquered in the time of Abd ar-Rahman’s grandfather. However Abd ar-Rahman was not very sure how they would feel about him taking the thrown for himself. He was welcomed by the people and grew a large following, because most people thought he had been killed along...
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...The formation of the Spanish Empire begins with the death of Isabella I in 1504. Her death played an influential role in Castile. Ferdinand II saw her death as an opportunity to expand his land, but was not able to. The Cortes Generales instead chose to crown Juana. However, in 1506, Juana’s husband, Philip I of Habsburg, was crowned King through jure uxoris. Within the same year Philip I died and Castile had no proper ruler. King Philip I and Queen Juana had a son named Charles who was expected to take over. However, Charles was only 6 and was not old enough to rule. This gave King Ferdinand II of Aragon the opportunity to rule over Castile as regent. When Ferdinand died in 1516, Charles became King Charles I, the first king of a United Spain. In addition to being Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empires grandson, the lands conquered by the Holy Roman Empire were passed to Charles V. In 1519, Charles V united the kingdoms of Spain and Austria and named it the Holy Roman...
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...Through the centuries, since the founding of Islam, Christians and Muslims have almost never been able to see eye to eye. After decades of colonialism and orientalism, the Muslim East and the Christian West were left at a great divide. Whereas most Muslims view Christian Westerners as fellow practitioners, or “people of the book,” many Europeans (and Americans) view Muslims as inferior to the Christian man. From the earliest days of Muslim practice, to the period of Muslim rule in Spain, to present-day society, Christians and Muslims have struggled to coexist in a frenzied world. Through arguments seen in Muslim Spain, as well as arguments seen by Fundamentalist Christians such as Franklin Graham today, it is clear that the modern-day Fundamentalist...
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...Islam Change over time ! The spread of Islam throughout the world was among the most significant worldwide movements in history. Beginning as the faith of a small community of believers in Arabia in the seventh century, Islam rapidly became one of the major world religions. The core of this faith is the belief that Muhammad (570-632), a respected businessman in Mecca, a commercial and religious center in western Arabia, received revelations from God that have been preserved in the Qur'an. The core of Islam remains the same today after 1396 years. Islam still translates to “submission” and Muslims still live by the Qur’an and follow the 5 Pillars of Islam. However, throughout the Pre-Islamic, Umayyad, and Abbasid eras, the political structure that governed the societies that followed Islam differed over the years with some minor continuity. The pre-Islamic era lasted from 400 B.C until the revelation of the Prophet Mohammad in 610 C.E. The lack of Islam evidently created a lack of true unity. The basic social unit of the Bedouin was the kin-related clan. The struggle to survive in the unrelenting Arabian environment led to strong dependence in one’s family and clan. Clans could never rest to maintain everyday lives with their necessities met. Clans were also linked to larger tribal groupings, however these tribal units seldom met together. Additionally, clans would often feud over water rights, animals, or even perceived sights to clan members’ honor, all of which often led...
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...history of Al-Andalus or Muslim Spain. Many historians David Fintz Altabé, Mark R. Cohen, Henry Kamen, Erin Morris, Mary Elizabeth Perry, Rukhsana Qamber, Saey, Tina Hesman Saey, Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis, Hugh Kennedy and Maya Soifer, with their different views have tried to solve the mystery to what exactly happened? What were the conditions in Al-Andalus? Did people of different religious faiths coexisted at that time under Muslims’ rule? What caused the massacre and conversion of Jews and Christians into Islam? What led to the Spanish Inquisition? This paper is focused on the Spanish Inquisition, its causes and its consequences which includes the conquest of Spain by Muslims, the co-existence of Muslims, Christians and Jews, the fall of Al-Andalus leading to the Spanish Inquisition and the expulsion of Muslims from Spain beginning in 1478. This paper will also distinguish between religion and the wrongdoings of men, staining it for their ulterior motives. This paper will include different views of historians and their arguments about all of the incidents stated above. The central argument of this paper is, history of Al-Andalus, through many historians is biased; with little evidence, many of historians blames Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, for the eradication of Muslims from Spain, whereas Muslims (Almohads) did in fact, exterminate Jews in communities and forced Christians to convert to Islam. Muslims entered Spain in 711, overthrowing...
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...Muslims got into Spain as Arabs and Berbers in 711 through Gibraltar straits. Thereafter, they established massive control of Iberian Peninsula. They had attacked much of the Northern parts of Spain including Toulouse by 719. This advancement, however, was stopped from central France in 732 by the Christians. The recapture of the Toledo by the Christians made Europe Muslim a special place of interest for what they had accomplished. Umayyad dynasty overthrew the Caliphate immediately after the civil war in Syria and Iraq, and replaced it with Abbasids dynasty. This caused a shift in the centre of power from Syria to Iraq marked by the foundation of the imperial capital of Baghdad in 762. In an attempt by the Abbasids members of the Umayyad, Abdu al-Rah man escaped into Andalusia and became ruler of Cordoba, its capital. A lot upgraded during this dynasty rule including social security, Muslims were the majority in the military. Much remembered during the period of the civil war between Syria and Iraq that resulted to a shift in power. They were able to restore peace and a smooth transition in power. Islamic contributed immensely to the growth of Europe that later spread worldwide. These contributions affected varied areas ranging from art, architecture, medicine, agriculture, music, language, education, law, and technology. In education, the madrassah was the first college, mainly teaching Islamic law and theology. Islamic world has had a considerable effect on the development...
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...Spain occupies 85% of the Iberian Peninsula, which it shares with Portugal, in southwest Europe. Africa is less than 10 mi (16 km) south at the Strait of Gibraltar. A broad central plateau slopes to the south and east, crossed by a series of mountain ranges and river valleys. Principal rivers are the Ebro in the northeast, the Tajo in the central region, and the Guadalquivir in the south. Off Spain's east coast in the Mediterranean are the Balearic Islands (1,936 sq mi; 5,014 sq km), the largest of which is Majorca. Sixty mi (97 km) west of Africa are the Canary Islands (2,808 sq mi; 7,273 sq km). Government Parliamentary monarchy. History Spain, originally inhabited by Celts, Iberians, and Basques, became a part of the Roman Empire in 206 B.C., when it was conquered by Scipio Africanus. In A.D. 412, the barbarian Visigothic leader Ataulf crossed the Pyrenees and ruled Spain, first in the name of the Roman emperor and then independently. In 711, the Muslims under Tariq entered Spain from Africa and within a few years completed the subjugation of the country. In 732, the Franks, led by Charles Martel, defeated the Muslims near Poitiers, thus preventing the further expansion of Islam in southern Europe. Internal dissension of Spanish Islam invited a steady Christian conquest from the north. Aragon and Castile were the most important Spanish states from the 12th to the 15th century, consolidated by the marriage of Ferdinand II and Isabella I in 1469. In 1478, they...
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...Spain During Ancient Times or Dates of Antiquity During ancient times or dates of antiquity Spain was under the Roman Empire. It was called Hispania, to it were born Roman emperors Trojan and Theodosius I and the philosopher Seneca. The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Romanum) was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. Spain During the Middle Ages 5th to 8th Century Rulers: Alaric I (Alareiks in the original Gothic) was likely born about 370 on an island named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the Danube in present day Romania. King of the Visigoths from 395–410, Alaric was the first Germanic leader to take the city of Rome. Having originally desired to settle his people in the Roman Empire, he finally sacked the city, marking the decline of imperial power in the west. Euric, also known as Evaric, Erwig, or Eurico in Spanish and Portuguese (c. 415 – 484), Son of Theodoric I and the younger brother of Theodoric II and ruled as king of the Visigoths, with his capital at Toulouse, from 466 until his death in 484. He inherited a large portion of the Visigothic possessions in the Aquitaine region of Gaul, an area that had been under Visigothic control since 415. Over the decades the Visigoths had gradually expanded their holdings at the expense of the weak Roman government, advancing well into Hispania in the process. Alaric II, also...
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...The crusade notes By: Travis Finney Date: 4-8-13 Decline of Byzantium * Muslim saliqus won an important victory at manzikert in 1071. Byzantium factions then turned on each other in civil war allowing the saliqus almost free rein in Anatolia. * The Byzantium emperor asked Pope Urban 11 to help him against the Muslim’s. Pope Urban 11 * Urban’s speech would help launch the first of several crusades. Reasons for the crusades * The Pope hoped to unite the entire eastern Mediterranean and the divided Christian faith under the banner of the Latin Church. * Italy with large navies supported the crusades for commercial gains and trading routes. * The Byzantine Empire was in severe decline and no longer could act as a butler between the Muslim east and the Catholic west. * Christian pilgrims visiting the holy sites in Jerusalem began experiencing increased harassment and danger. The First Crusade * The word “Crusade” comes from the Spanish Crusade which means “marked with the cross” * The first Crusaders met the Muslim forces and won victories at Nicaea on June 19, 1097 and Anita on June 3, 1098. * By June 7, 1099 after a three year campaign 12,000 of the original 30,000 crusaders reached Jerusalem. * On July 15, the crusaders went over the city walls and unleashed unbridled carnage. Moslem counter attack * Most of all the crusaders returned to Europe after freeing Jerusalem creating a manpower shortage. * Moslem...
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...Arabic language First, it is important to define what actually makes an Arab. The answer is quite simple – The Arabic language! An Arab is a member of a linguistic group—and therefore, the Arab World can best be defined as the region in which people predominantly speak Arabic. Yet throughout what would be considered the Arab World, tens of thousands of people speak languages other than Arabic, ranging from the numerous dialects of Berber on the African coast of the Mediterranean to Kurdish and Armenian in southwest Asia, and so on. Arabic is a Semitic language and the sixth most common language in the world. It is a language of religious importance since it is the holy language of the world's approximately 1 billion followers of Islam. It is used as a first language by approximately 200 million people and as a second language by about 246 million speakers. It does also belong to the six official languages of the United Nations. It is characterized by diglossia, a linguistic situation in which two varieties of the same language have a functional distribution, with the spoken variety used in informal and intimate contexts and the written variety, the Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), acquired through literacy and used in written and formal discourse. For those wanting to do business in Arabic-speaking markets, the Modern Standard Arabic is important, because it is common to all the countries in the Arab world, and is used in newspapers, magazines, books, and government documents...
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...of World War II While in the United States Dali wrote the librettos “Bacchanale” and “Labyrinth”. Both of them were written in 1941. His autobiography “The Secret Life of Salvador Dali” was published in 1942. In 1944 he wrote the libretto “Tristan Fou”. His time in the United States lasted until 1948 when he moved back to Spain. He was a strong supporter of Francisco Franco and his dictatorial rule of Spain. “He painted two portraits of Franco’s family and publicly re-embraced Roman Catholicism, receiving a blessing from the pope” (Benezit Dictionary of Artists). This support was disapproved of by many his fellow Spanish artists. Dali’s painterly skills are often said to have been influenced by the famous painters of the Renaissance. Along with painting and writing Dali had his hand in film, sculpture, and photography. He was a very eccentric individual, something he even admitted to being. He also loved luxury and oriental clothes. He claimed that it was due to having been descended from the Moors. Moors were Muslim people in the medieval time that inhabited parts of the Iberian Peninsula. The Moors and the Christendom of Europe had a conflict called the Reconquista which lasted centuries. It came to an end with the fall of Granada in 1492. Salvador Dali was also known for having an extremely well-constructed public persona and was able to hide behind it rarely faltering behind it. Dali’s works are all over the spectrum of styles. Dali’s take on things when painting were very...
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...Truth About April Fool's Day And Muslim Representative Method of Scientific Inquiry By Muhammad Tariq Ghazi MMG (Muslim Media Group) http://www.indianmuslims.org/jsp/articles/articles.jsp An email often goes around that warn Muslims again April Fool observation by claiming that this tradition originates from the event of Christians victory over Muslims in Andalusian Spain. It proposes that Europeans made fool of Muslims by introducing Liquor and Tobacco to them and thus gradually weaken them through its indulgence. The author busts the myth with correct version of history and common sense and explain the origin of April Fool's Day. I never knew that 1 April 2007 would be a day of reckoning, in a dubious style though. As a child I might have played the fool on the fool's day by saying what I would believe was funny to someone I loved - like my brothers and sister. Nobody stopped me from those innocent escapades, for they were perhaps as innocuous, or as harmful, as watching an occasional movie - ordinarily at an interval of six-seven months - like Sohrab Modi's "Pukar", or Mehboob Khan's "Humayun", or Nanubhai Vakil's "Hatim Tai". But in later years the April fun did not amuse us older children any longer as we found the annual practice very boring. Gradually I realized that not many people around me were taking April Fool's Day seriously: rarely anyone would try to make fun of gullible peers. This year, however, the day of fools dawned out of blue. I was astonished to know...
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...In pre-Islamic times, apart from a small number of urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), most of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic tribal societies in the inhospitable desert.[38] The Islamic prophet, Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 571 A.D. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In so doing, Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed conquered lands.[39] From the 10th century to the early 20th century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[40][41] In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Ahsa) to the Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.[42] Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four...
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...CHAPTER 1 Encounter I. Patterns of Indigenous Life 1. Geography and environment prompted Indigenous Americans to adopt different forms of social organization 1. Nonsedentary peoples 1. Mobile communities 2. Hunters and gatherers 3. Relatively simple social organization 4. Examples include 1. Chichimecas of northern Mexico 2. Pampas of Argentine grasslands 1. Semisedentary peoples 1. Often lived in forests 2. Relied on some agriculture as well as hunting 3. Built villages, but moved frequently 4. Employed “shifting cultivation” agriculture to take advantage of thin forest soil 5. Examples include Tupí people of Brazil 1. Fully sedentary 1. Permanent settlements 2. Often on high plateaus, rather than forests or grasslands 3. Stability allowed for complex societies 4. Employed irrigation to sustain agricultural base 5. Sometimes developed into city-states or empires 6. Highly stratified societies 7. Examples 1. Aztec empire 2. Maya empire 3. Inca empire 1. Empires of the Americas 1. Aztec empire 1. Aztec refers to the empire, not the people 2. In modern-day Mexico 3. Ruled by the Mexica people ...
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...1 (This paper was presented during the SEACSN Conference 2004: “Issues and Challenges for Peace and Conflict Resolution in Southeast Asia”, at Shangri-La Hotel, Penang, Malaysia on 12-15 January 2004) Muslim Minority in the Philippines By Abhoud Syed M. Lingga Executive Director, Institute of Bangsamoro Studies How the Muslims as a minority situate themselves within the Philippine national community is the subject of discussion in this paper. A look into their views on their relations with the national community is helpful in understanding the conflict in Mindanao for this is the impetus in their assertion for their right to self-determination. Minority Communities We find minority communities within the borders of many countries today. These minority communities can be classified broadly into three major categories (Che Man 1990:1). The minority migrant populations are in the first category. During the colonial period, workers were recruited from other colonies to work in plantations, mining and other industries. In recent years, migration of peoples who are induced by pull factors like economic opportunities and liberal policies of countries of destination and the push factors in their own countries like violent conflicts, lack of economic opportunities and repressive government policies are observable. The migrant populations have no attachment to any portion of the territory of the host country. Their concerns are the acceptability by and equal rights with the dominant majority...
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