-^uc

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY
EDITED BY
T. E.

CAPPS,

PH.D., LL.D.

PAGE, LITT.D. W. H. D. ROUSE,

utt.d.

CICEKO DE OFFICIIS

I

.

M.TULLIUS CICERO. rROMTHE JAMES LO£B COLLECTION

^y^

CICERO
DE OFFICIIS
WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

WALTER MILLER
PBOFESSOR OF LATIN IN IHE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOUEI

LONDON WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD NEW YORK G. R PUTNAM'S SONS
:
:

MCMXXVIII

IV5 rhst printed 1913 Rtprinted 1921, 1928

PrxMtdin Oreat Brttain

by

Woods and Soni,

Lld., LonJon,

M.

I

INTRODUCTION
In the de Officiis we have, save for the latter PhiUppicSj the great orator's last contribution to The last, sad, troubled years of his busj"^ literature. life could not be given to his profession; and he turned his never-resting thoughts to the second love of his student days and made Greek philosophy a possibihty for Roman readers. The senate had been abohshed; the courts had been closed. His occupation was gone but Cicero could not surrender himself to idleness. In those days of distraction (46-43 b.c.) he produced for pubhcation almost as much as in all his years of active life. The liberators had been able to remove the tyrant, but they could not restore the republic. Cicero's own hfe was in danger from the fury of mad Antony and he left Rome about the end of March^ 44 b.c. He dared not even stop permanently in any one of his various country estates, but, wretched^ wandered from one of his villas to another nearly all the summer and autumn through. He would not suffer himself to become a prey to his overwhelming sorrow at the death of the repubhc and the final crushing of the hopes that had risen with Caesar's downfall, but worked at the highest tension on his philosophi;

cal studies.

The Romans were not philosophical. In l6l b.c. the senate passed a decree excluding all philosophers and teachers of rhetoric from the city. They had no taste for philosophical speculation, in which the Greeks were the world's masters. Thej' were intenselyjnarrowlypractical. And Cicerowas thorough-

INTRODUCTION
As a studeiit in a Greek university he had had to study philosophy. His mind was broad enough and his soul great enough to give him a joy iii foUowing after the mighty masters, Socrates, Plato, ly lloman.

^

Zeno, Cleanthes, Aristotle,Theophrastus,andtherest. But he pursued his study of it, hke a Roman, from a practical" motive to promote thereby his poAver an orator and to augment his success and happiness in lifc. To him Ihe goal of pliilosoph^' was not primarily to know but to do. Its end was to point out the course of conduct that would lead to succcss and happiness. The only side of philosophy, therefore, that could make much appeal to the Roman mind was ethics; pure science could have httle meaning for the practical Roman metaphysics might supplement ethics and rehgion, without which true happiness was felt to be impossible. Philosophical study had its place, therefore, and the most important department of philosophy was The treatise on Moral Duties has the very ethics. practical purpose of giving a practical discussion of the basic principles of Moral Duty and practical rules for personal conduct. As a philosopher, if we may so stretch the term as to include him, Cicero avows himself an adherent of the New Academy and a disciple of Carneades. He had tried Epicureanism under Phaedrus and Zeno, Stoicism under Diodotus and Posidonius but Philo of Larissa converted him to the New Academy. Scepticism declared the attainment of absolute knowledge impossible. But there is the easily obtainable golden mean of the probable and that appealed It appealed especially to to the practical Roman. Ciccro; and the same indccision that had been hvs

—

;

;

;

X

INTRODUCTION bane in political life naturally led

him

first

ticism,

then to eclecticism, where

his

to scepchoice is

dictated by his bias for the practical and his scepticismitself disappears from view. Andwhile Antiochus, the eclectic Academician of Athens, and Posidonius, the eclectic Stoic of Rhodes, seem to have had the strongest influcnce upon him, he draws at his own discretion from the founts of Stoics, Peripatetics, and Academicians aHke; he has only contempt for tlie Epicureans, Cynics, and Cyrenaics. But the more he studied and hved, the more of a Stoic in ethics he

became.

The cap-sheaf treatise of Cicero's ethical studies

is

the

on the Moral Duties. It takes the form of a lctter addressed to his son Marcus (see Index), at this time a youth of twenty-one, pursuing his university studies in the Peripatetic school of Cratippus in Athens, and sowing for what promised to be an abundant crop of wild oats. This situation gives force and definiteness to the practical tendencies of And yet, be it obthe father's ethical teachings. served, that same father is not without censure for contributing to his son's extravagant and riotous living by giving him an allowance of nearly £870 a year. pretensions to originahty is a follower an expositor of the Greeks. As the basis of his discussion of the Moral Duties he takes the Stoic Panaetius of Rhodes (see Index), Uepl Kad-qKovTo ;art of those who, when they can, do not shield from wrong those upon whom it is being inflicted. For he who, under the influence of anger or some other passion, wrongfully assaults another seems, as it were, to be laying violent hands upon a comrade; b ''.c who does not prevent or oppose wrong, if he can, is just as guilty of wrong as if he desei-ted his parents or his friends or his country. Then, too, those very wrongs which people try to inflict on purpose to injure are often the result of fear: that is, he who premeditates injuring another is afraid that, if he does not do so, he may himself be made to sufler some hurt. But for the most part, people are led to wrong-doing in order to secure some personal end in this vice, avarice is generally the controlling motive. VIII. Again, men seek riches partly to supply the needs of hfe, partly to secure the enjoyment of pleasure. With those who cherish higher ambitions, The dangers ""^* the desire for wealth is entertained with a view to *"^ power and influence and the means of bestowing favours Marcus Crassus, for example, not long since tice There

—

ar^

-.

tht.

-^

,".

;

of

*

;

25

CICERO DE OFFICIIS magnam pecumam set. esse

ei,

qui in re publica princeps

vellet esse, cuius fructibus exercitum alere

non pos-

Delectant etiam magnifici apparatus vitaeque

cultus estj cum elegantia

et copia ; quibus rebus efFectum

ut infinita pecuniae cupiditas esset.

Nec vero

rei familiaris amplificatio estj nemini nocens vituperanda est. sed fugienda semper iniuria

26

Maxime autem adducuntur plerique, ut eos tiae iusti-

capiat oblivio,

cum

in imperiorum,
^

honorum, est gloriae

cupiditatem inciderunt.

Quod enim

apud Ennium:
Niilla sancta societas

Nec

fides regni est,

id latius patet.

Nam

quicquid eius modi fit est, in

quo

non possint plures ctam societatem."
Caesaris, qui

excellerej in eo sit plerumque san- tanta contentio, ut difficillimum

servare

Declaravit id et omnia iura divina

modo temeritas C. humana pervertit

propter eum, principatum. quem

sibi ipse opinionis errore finxerat,

Est autem in hoc genere molestum,

quod

in

maximis animis splendidissimisque ingeniis exsistunt honoris, imperii, plerumque

potentiae, est, gloriae cupiditates.

Quo magis cavendum permultum ;

ne

quid in eo genere peccetur.

27

Sed

in
'

omni

iniustitia

interest,
c.

utrum

tnciderunt

ABHL

a b inciderint

26

:

BOOK

I.

viii

declared that no amount of wealth was enough for the man who aspired to be the foremost citizen of the state, unless with the income from it he could maintain an army. Fine establishments and the comforts of life ia elegance and abundance also afFord pleasure, and the desire to secure it gives rise to the insatiable thirst for wealth. Still, I do not mean to find fault with the accumulation of property, provided it hurts nobody, but unjust acquisition of it is always to be avoided. The great majority of people, however, when they fall a prey to ambition for either mihtary or civil authority, are carried away by it so completely that they quite lose sight of the claims of justice.

For Ennius says

There

is

no fellowship is inviolate,

No

faith

keptj

when

kingship

is

concerned;"

and the truth of his words has an uncommonly wide appHcation. For whenever a situation is of such a nature that not more than one can hold preeminence in it, competition for it usually becomes so keen that it is an extremely difficult matter to maintain a fellowship inviolate." We saw this caesar. proved but now in the efFrontery of Gaius Caesar, who, to gain that sovereign power which by a depraved imagination he had conceived in his fancy, trod underfoot all laws of gods and men. But the trouble about this matter is that it is in the greatest souls and in the most brilliant geniuses that we usually find ambitions for civil and mihtary authority,for power, and for glory, springing up and therefore we must be the more heedful not to go wrong in that direction. But in any case of injustice it makes a vast deal Themotivesto
;

gn.

wrong.

CICERO DE OFFICIIS perturbatione aliqua animi, quae plerumque brevis est et ad tempus^ an consulto et cogitata ^ fiat iniuria. Leviora enim sunt ea, quae repentino aliquo motu accidunt, quam ea, quae meditata et praeparata inferuntur.

28

inferenda quidem iniuria satis dictum est. IX. Praetermittendae autem defensionis deserendique officii plures solent esse causae nam aut inimicitias aut laborem aut sumptus suscipere nolunt aut etiam neglegentiaj pigritia, inertia aut suis studiis quibusdam occupationibusve sic impediuntur, ut eos, quos tutari debeant, desertos esse patiantur. Itaque
;

Ac de

fsiff. ' VII, 520

;

videndum
D

est^

ne non

satis sit id^

nem

est in philosophos dictum,

gatione versentur quodque ea, menter expetant/ de quibus inter se digladiari soleant^ contemnant et pro nihilo putent, propterea iustos esse. Nam alterum [iustitiae genus] assequuntur^^ ut* inferenda ne cui noceant iniuria^ in alterum incidunt^; discendi enim studio impediti, Rop. I, quos tueri debent, deserunt. Itaque eos ne ad rem 347 C pubHcam quidem accessuros putat nisi coactos. Aequius autem erat id voluntate fieri; nam hoc ipsum ita iustum est, quod recte fit^ si est voluntarium. Sunt etiam, qui aut studio rei famiharis tuendae 29 aut odio quodam hominum suum se negotium agere
'

quod apud Platoquod in veri investiquae plerique vehe-

cogitata

A B H

a b

p,

Edd.; cogitatu
;

c,

cogitato

alii,

Madvig- (ad

^e.vpetant exspcctant c. ^alterum iustitiae genus assequuntur MSS. alterum assequuntur Pearce, J. M. Heusiiiger, et al.; alterum genus assequuntur Beier. *ut Halm in MSS.; om. Bt. "m alterum incidunt A B H a b «n altero dcllnqunt c, Bt. {delinquunt, i.e. they offend in tlie other dircction).
;

De Fin. p. 696). A B a b; expectant H

;

;

28

BOOK

I.

viii-ix

of diiference whether the wrong is done as a result of some impulse of passion^ which is usually brief and transientj or whether it is committed wilfully and with premeditation ; for ofFences that come through some sudden impulse are less culpable than those committed designedly and with malice aforethought. But enough has been said on the subject of inflicting injury.

for failure to prevent injury and duty are likely to be various: people either are reluctant to incur enmity or trouble or expense; or through indifference, indolence, or incompetence, or through some preoccupation or selfinterest they are so absorbed that they suffer those to be neglected whom it is their duty to protect. And

IX.

The motives

so for slighting

Motiyes to pas^'^'''"J"' "^®-

a.

Preoccupa-

*'°°'

is reason to fear that what Plato declares of the philosophers may be inadequate, when he says that they are just because they are busied with the pursuit of truth and because they despise and count as naught that which most men eagerly seek and for which they are prone to do battle against each other to the death. For they secure one sort

so there

of iustice, to be sure^ in that they do no positive wrong to anyone^ but they fall into the opposite injustice ; for hampered by their pursuit of learning they leave to their fate those whom they ought to And so, Plato thinks, they will not even defend. assume their civic duties except under compulsion.

But

in fact it

them of sically were better that they should assume own accord; for an action intrinright is just only on condition that it is their also

voluntary.

There are some attending to their

own

who^ either from zeal in business or through some 29

b. Seif-interest.

;

CICERO DE OFFICIIS dicant nec facere cuiquam videantur iniuriam.

Qui

altero genere iniustitiae vacant, in alterum incurrunt

deserunt enim vitae societatem, quia nihil conferunt in eam

studii, nihil operae, nihil facultatum.

Quando sitis igitur

duobus generibus

iniustitiae propo-

adiunximus causas utriusque generis easque res iustitia contineretur, facile, sit, ante constituimus, quibus

quod cuiusque temporis officium

poterimus^ nisi est 30 nosmet ipsos valde amabimus, iudicare;
Heaut. Tim. 77. difficilis enim

cura rerum alienarum.

Quamquam nihil Teren-

tianus

ille

Chremes

jf

humani

a se alienura

putat"; sed tamen, quia magis ea percipimus atque sentimus, quae nobis ipsis aut prospera aut adversa eveniunt, quam

illa,

quae

ceteris,

quae quasi longo

intervallo interiecto videmus, aliter de ilHs ac

de

nobis iudicamus.

Quocirca bene praecipiunt, qui

vetant quicquam agere, quod dubites

aequum

sit

an

iniquum.

Aequitas enim lucet ipsa per

se, dubitatio

cogitationem significat iniuriae.
31

X. Sed incidunt saepe

tempora,

cum

ea,

quae

maxime videntur digna

esse iusto

homine eoque,

quem virum bonum

dicimus, commutantur fiuntque

contraria, ut reddere depositum, facere

promissum-

quaeque pertinent ad veritatem et ad fidem, ea mi30

BOOK

I.

ix-x

sort of aversion to their fellow-men, claim that they

are occupied solely with their own affairs, without seeming to themselves to be doing anyone any injury. But while they steer clear of the one kind of injustice, they fall into the other they are traitors to social Hfe, for they contribute to it none of their interest, none of their efFort, none of their means. Now since we have set forth the two kinds of Ruies of injustice and assigned the motives that lead to each, j^^g^JJgg'^ and since we have previously established the principles by which justice is constituted, we shall be in a position easily to decide what our duty on each occasion iSj unless we are extremely self-centred for indeed it is not an easy matter to be really concerned with other people's afFairs and yet in Terence's play, we know, Chremes thinks that nothing that concerns
:

duty ^^

;

;

man tum fully is

foreign to him." feel it

out for our

own good

Nevertheless, when things or ill, we realize it more

and

more deeply than when the same

things happen to others and we see them only, as it wer3, in the far distanee; and for this reason we judge their case differently from our own. It is, therefore, an excellent rule that they give who bid us not to do a thing, when there is a doubt whether it be right or wrong for righteousness shines with a briljiance of its own, but doubt is a sign that we are thinking of a possible wrong. X. But occasions often arise, when those duties change of duty which seem most becoming to the just man and to '° change of cirthe good man," as we call him, undergo a change and take on a contrary aspect. It may, for example, not be a duty to restore a trust or to fulfil a promise, and it may become right and proper sometimes to evade and not to observe what truth and honour 31
;

CICERO DE OFFICIIS grare interdum et non servare
Ch. vii fit iustum.

Referri

enim decet ad iustitiae^ ea,

quae posui principio^ fundamenta

primum

ut ne cui noceatur, deinde ut com-

muni
32 idem.

utilitati serviatur.

Ea cum tempore commuet

tantur,

commutatur

officium

non semper

est

Potest enim accidere promissum aliquod et effici conventum, ut id

sit

inutile vel

ei,

cui prosi,

missum
Eur. Hipp. 1315-1319
e.g.

sitj

vel

ei,

qui promiserit

Nam filio ut in

fabulis

est,

Neptunus,

quod Theseo

promiserat,

non

fecisset,
;

Theseus Hippolyto

non

esset

orbatus

ex tribus enim

optatis^ ut scribitur,

hoc erat

tertium^ quod de Hippolyti interitu iratus optavit;

quo impetrato

in

maximos

luctus incidit.

Nec iis, pro-

missa igitur servanda sunt ea^ quae sint promiseriSj inutilia^ nec, ilH prosint, cui si quibus

plus tibi ea noceant

quam

promiseris, contra officium est maius
;

anteponi minori

ut, si constitueris

cuipiam te advo-

catum

in

rem praesentem

esse filius venturum atque coeperit, interim graviter aegrotare

non

sit

contra officium non facere, quod dixeris, magisque ille, cui

promissum

sit,

ab

officio illis discedat,

si

se

destitutum queratur.

lam

promissis standum

non

esse quis
^cut

non

videt,

quae coactus quis metu,

B

a,

Edd, ; cui quod
(i)

H

b cui quid
;

A

c.

*The three wishes were:
(2)

escape frora the Labyrinth;

(3)

safe return from Hades; the death of Hippolytus.

32

BOOK

I.

X

would usually demand. For we may well be guided by those fundamental principles of justice which I laid down at the outset first, that no harm be done to anyone; second, that the common interests be conserved. When these are modified under changed circumstances, moral duty also undergoes a change, ;ind it does not always remain the same. For a given promise or agreement may turn out in such a way Non-fulfilment that its performance will prove detrimental either to ° P"^"™'*^*the one to whom the promise has been made or to the one who has made it. If, for example, Neptune, in the drama, had not carried out his promise to Theseus, Theseus would not have lost his son
:

Hippolytus; for, as the story runs, of the three wishes^ that Neptune had promised to grant him the third was this in a fit of anger he prayed for the death of Hippolytus, and the granting of this prayer plunged him into unspeakable grief. Promises are, therefore, not to be kept, if the keeping of them Is to prove harmful to those to whom you have made them and, if the fulfilment of a promise should do more harm to you than good to him to whom you have made it, it is no violation of moral duty to give the greater good precedence over the lesser good. For example, if you have made an appointment with anyone to appear as his advocate in court, and if in the meantime your son should fall dangerously ill, it would be no breach of your moral duty to fail in what you agreed to do; nay, rather, he to whom your promise was given would have a false conception of duty, if he should complain that he had been deserted in his time of need. Further than this, who fails to see that those promises are not binding which are extorted by intimidation or which we make when D 3.a
:

;

CICERO DE OFFICIIS quae deceptus dolo promiserit? quae quidem pleraque iure praetorio liberantur,

non nulla

legibus.

S3

Exsistunt etiam saepe iniuriae calumnia quadam et nimis callida^ sed malitiosa iuris interpretatione. Ex

quo illud Summum ius summa iniui*ia" factum est iam tritum sermone proverbium. Quo in genere etiam in re publica multa peccantur, ut ille, qui, cum triginta dierum essent cum hoste indutiae factae, noctu populabatur agros, quod dierum essent pactae, non noctium indutiae. Ne noster quidem probandus, si (nihil

verum est Q. Fabium Labeonem seu quem alium enim habeo praeter auditum) arbitrum Nolanis

et Neapolitanis de finibus a senatu datum,

cum

ad

locum venisset, cum utrisque separatim locutum, ne cupidequid agerent, ne appetenter, atque ut regredi progredi mallent. Id cum utrique fecissent, Itaque aliquantum agri in medio relictum est.

quam

illorum finis sic, ut ipsi dixerant, terminavit in medio relictum quod erat, populo Romano adiudicavit.
;

Decipere hoc quidem est, non iudicare. Quocirca in est re fugienda taHs sollertia. XI. Sunt autem quaedam officia etiam adversus eos servanda, a quibus iniuriam acceperis. Est enim ulciscendi et puniendi modus; atque haud scio an satis sit eu m, qui lacessierit, iniuriae suae paenitere *Each praetor, at his inauguration, announced publicly

omni

,

the principles and policies that should gulde him in the administration of his office. These were the source of the his Praetorium, which explained and supplemented the common law (/«s Civile) and even modified its ancient rigour so as to conform with a more advanced public sentiment, and form a most valuable part of the body of Roman

Law. hThis story is told of Cleomenes, King' of Sparta (520(Plutarch, Apophth. 491 B.C.), in the war with Argos. Lacon. 223 A.)

34

;

BOOK

I.

x-xi

misled by false pretences? Such obligations ai*e annulled in most cases by the praetor's edict in equity/ in some cases by the laws. Injustice often arises also through chicanery^ that Chicanery. is, through an over-subtle and even fraudulent construction of the law. This it is that gave rise to the now famihar saw, More law^ less justice." Through such interpretation also a great deal of wrong is

committed thus, in transactions

between

state

and

state

a truce had been made with the enemy for thirty days, a famous general'' went to ravaging their fields by night^ because, he said, the truce stipulated 'days," not nights. Not even our own countryman's action is to be commended, if what is told of Quintus Fabius Labeo is true or whoever it was (for I have no authority but hearsay) appointed by the Senate to arbitrate a boundary dispute between Nola and Naples, he took up the case and interviewed both parties separately, asking th.em not to proceed in a covetous or grasping spirit, but to make some concession rather than claim some accession. When each party had agreed to this, there was a considerable strip of territory left between them. And so he set the boundary of each city as each had severally agreed ; and the tract in between he awarded to the Roman People. Now that is swindhng, not arbitration. And therefore such sharp practice is under all circumstances to be avoided. XI. Again, there are certain duties that we owe Our duty to even to those who have wronged us. For there is a wrongrd us^^^^

when

—

:

limit to retribution

and

to

punishment

;

or rather,

I

am inclined to think, it is

the aggressor should be brought to repent of his wrong-doing, in d2 $& sufficient that

CICERO DE OFFICIIS ut et ipse ne quid tale posthac et ceteri sint ad iniuriam tardiores.

34

Atque iura belli.

in re publica

maxime conservanda sunt duo genera decertandi,

Nam cum sit sint

unum illud per disceptationem, alterum per vim, cumque hominis, hoc beluarum, confugiensi

proprium est dum

ad posterius,

uti

non

licet

superiore.

35 Quare suscipienda quidem bella sunt ob eam causam, ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur, parta autem victoria

conservandi

ii,

qui

non crudeles

in bello,

non im-

manes fuerunt, ut maiores nostri Tusculanos, Aequos,
Volscos, Sabinos, Hernicos in civitatem etiam acce-

perunt, at Carthaginem et

Numantiam

funditus sus-

tulerunt; nollemCorinthum,sedcredoaliquid secutos,

opportunitatem

loci

maxime, ne posset aliquando ad

bellum faciendum locus ipse adhortari. sententia paci, quae nihil habitura sit Mea quidem insidiarum, semper

est

consulendum. si In quo

si

mihi esset op-

temperatum,

non optimam, est, at aliquam

rem

publi-

cam^ quae nunc nulla

haberemus.

Et cum ii, iis,

quos

vi deviceris,

consulendum

est,

tum

qui armis positis

ad imperatorum fidem confugient,
In quo ii, quamvis 36

murum

aries percusserit, recipiendi. est, tantopere apud nostros iustitia culta

ut

qui

:

BOOK

I.

xi

!4

i5

order that he may not repeat the ofFence and that others may be deterred from doing wrong. Then, too, in the case of a state in its external relations, the rights of war must be strictly observed. For since there are two ways of settling a dispute first, by discussion; second, by physical force; and since the former is characteristic of man, the latter of the brute, we must resort to force only in case we may not avail ourselves of discussion. The only Excuse excuse, therefore, for going to war is that we may

for war.

peace unharmed; and when the victory is won, we should spare those who have not been blood-thirsty and barbarous in their warfare. For instance, our forefathers actually admitted to full live in

Justicetoward ^ vanquis ea

rights of citizenship the Tusculans, Aequians, Volscians,

Sabines, and Hernicians, but they razed Carthage and Numantia to the ground. I wish they had not destroyed Corinth but I beheve they had some special reason for what they did its convenient situation, probably and feared that its very location might some day furnish a temptation to renew the war. In my opinion, at least, we should always strive to secure a peace that shall not admit
;

—

—

of guile. this point,

And if my advice had been heeded on we should still have at least some sort of

constitutional government, if not the best in the world, whereas, as it is, we have none at all. Not only must we show consideration for those whom we have conquered by force of arms but we must also ensure protection to those who lay down their arms and throw themselves upon the mercy of our generals, even though the battering-ram has hammered at their walls. And among our countrymen justice has been observed so conscientiously in

37

CICERO DE OFFICIIS civitates aut nationes devictas bello in

fidem recepis-

sentj

36

earum patroni essent more maiorum. belli quidem aequitas sanctissime fetiali populi Romani iure perscripta est. Ex quo intellegl potest nullum bellum esse iustum, nisi quod aut rebus repe-

Ac

titis

geratur aut denuntiatum ante

sit

et indictum.

[Popilius

imperator tenebat provinciam, in cuius filius exercitu Catonis
Popilio videretur

tiro militabat.

Cum autem

unam

dimittere legionem^ Catonis

quoque filium, qui in eadem legione militabat, dimisit. Sed cum amore pugnandi in exercitu remansisset, Cato ad Popilium scripsit, ut, si eum patitur^ in exercitu remanere, secundo eum obliget militiae sacramento, quia priore amisso iure

cum

hostibus

37 pugnare non poterat. in bello movendo.]^ epistula ad

Adeo summa in erat observatio

M.

filiunij

missum factum

esse

M. quidem Catonis senis est qua scribit se audisse eum a consule, cum in Macedonia

bello Persico miles esset.

Monet

igitur,

ut caveat,

ne proelium ineat; negat enim ius esse, qui miles non sit, cum hoste pugnare. XII. Equidem etiam illud animadverto, quod, qui proprio nomine perduellis esset, is hostis vocaretur,

lenitate verbi rei tristitiam mitigatam.

Hostis enim pere- apud maiores nostros
^Popilitis
. .
.

is

dicebatur,

quem nunc
;

.

.

movendo bracketed by Madvig, Edd. Popilius
;

poterat bracketed by Unger. ^patitur A B H a b patiatur c.
.

»

Lucius Aemilius Paulus (b.C.

i68).

88

"

BOOK this direction, that tliose

I.

xi-xii

who have given promise

of

protection to states or nations subdued in war become, after the custom of our forefathers, the patrons of
36

those states. As for war, humane laws touching it are drawn Thehumanity '^'''^ up in the fetial code of the Roman People under all «f ^a"'^ the guarantees of reHgion and from this it may be gathered that no war is just, unless it is entered upon after an official demand for satisfaction has been submitted or warning has been given and a formal declaPopihus was general in command of ration made. In his army Cato's son was serving on a province.
;

his first campaign.

When

PopiHus decided to

dis-

band one of his legions, he discharged also young Cato who was serving in that same legion, But when the young man out of love for the service stayed on in the field, his father wrote to Popihus to say that if he let him stay in the army, he should swear him into service with a new oath of allegiance, for in view of the voidance of his former oath he could not legally fight the foe. So extremely scrupulous was the observance of the laws in regai-d to tlie 37 conduct of war. There is extant, too, a letter of the elder Marcus Cato to his son Marcus, in which he writes that he has heard that the youth has been discharged by the consul,* when he was serving in Macedonia in the war with Perseus. He warns him, therefore, to be careful not to go into battle for, he says, the man who is not legally a soldier has no right to be fighting the foe. XII. This also I observe that he who would a fighting enemy properly have been called {perduellis) was called " a guest " ihostis), thus reheving the ughness of the fact by a softened expression; for "enemy" {hostis) meant to our an;

—

39

:

CICERO DE OFFICIIS grinum dicimus.
Indicant duodecim tabulae: aut
:

STATUS DIES CUM HOSTE, itcmque

ADVERSUS HOSTEM

AETERNA AUCTORiTAS. addi potest,

Quid ad lianc mansuetudinem eum, quicum bellum geras, tam molli

nomine appellare? Quamquam id nomen durius efFecit^ iam vetustas; a peregrino enim recessit et proprie in eo, qui arma contra ferret, remansit.

38

Cum vero de gloria, causas

imperio decertatur belloque quaeritur

omnino subesse tamen oportet easdem, quibus imperii proposita gloria sunt. quas dixi paulo ante iustas causas esse bellorum.

Sed ea

bella,

est,

minus acerbe gerenda aliter Ut enim cum

civi

contendimus,

si^ est inimicus, aliter, si

com-

petitor est, (cum

altero

certamen honoris et dignitatis

cum

altero capitis et famae), sic

cum

Cimbris bellum ut

esset,

non uter

cum Celtiberis, cum inimicis gerebatur, uter imperaret, cum Latinis, Sabinis, SamPyrrho de imperio dimicabatur. iustiores.

nitibus,

Poenis,

Poeni foedifragi, crudelis Hannibal, reliqui
Pyrrhi quidem de captivis reddendis
Ennius,

illa

praeclara

Ann. VI.
Vah'en2,

pretium Ncc mi aurum posco nec mi tr r

dederitis,

Ncc^ cauponantes bellum, sed belligerantes
Ferro,
'

2^1

non auro vitam cernamus
Edd.
;

utrique.

effecit

efficit

MSS.
Anemoe-

cuni cive [Edd.: ctvi] aliter contendimus st h, cius, Edd.; ctim civiliter contetidimns aliter 5/ A B
^

H

a b

c.

^Nec

AB H b

c;

Non L

p, Bt.,

Heine.

40

:

.

BOOK cestors I.

xii

This

is

what we now call stranger " {peregrinus) proved by the usage in the Twelve Tables:

a day fixed for trial with a stranger" {hostis). again: Right of ownership is inaHenable for ever in deahngs with a stranger" (hostis). What

Or

And

can exceed such charity, at war

is

called

by

so gentle a

when he with whom one is name? And yet

long lapse of time has given that word a harsher " meaning for it has lost its signification of stranger and has taken on the technical connotation of an enemy under arms." But when a war is fought out for supremacy and when glory is the object of war, it must still not fail to start from the same motives which I said a moment ago were the only righteous grounds for going to war. But those wars which have glory for their end must be carried on with less bitterness. For we
:

justice in war.

contend, for example, with a fellow-citizen in one way, if he is a personal enemy, in another^ if he is a rival: with the rival it is a struggle for office and position, with the enemy for Hfe and honour. So with the Celtiberians and the Cimbrians we fought as with deadly enemies, not to determine which should be supreme, but which should survive but with the Latins, SabineSj Samnites, Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus we fought for supremacy. The Carthaginians violated treaties Hannibal was cruel the others were more merciful. From Pyrrhus we have this famous speech on the exchange of prisoners Goldwill I none, nor price shall yegive; forlasknone; Come, let us not be chaifrers of war, but warriors embattled. Nay; let us venture our hves, and the sword, not gold, weigh the outcome. 41
;
; ;

:

CICERO DE OFFICIIS
Vosne
velit

an

me

regnare era, quidve ferat Fors,

Virtute experiamur.

Et hoc simul accipe dictum

Quorum

virtuti^ belli fortuna pepercit,

Eorundem

libertati

me

parcere certum

est.

Dono, ducite, doque volentibus cum magnis

dis.

Regalis sane et digna Aeacidarum genere sententia.

39

XIII.

Atque etiam

si

quid singuli temporibus

adducti hosti promiserunt, est in eo ipso fides conservanda, ut primo Punico bello Regulus captus a

Poenis

cum de

captivis

commutandis

Romam

missus venit, esset iurassetque se rediturum,

primum, ut

captivos reddendos in senatu

non

censuit, deinde,

cum

retineretur a propinquis et ab amicis, ad supplifallere.

cium redire maluit quam fidem hosti datam
40

[Secundo autem Punico bello post Cannensem

pugnam quos decem Hannibal Romam

astrictos

misit iure iurando se redituros esse, nisi de redi-

mendis

iis,

qui capti erant, impetrassent, eos

omnes

^virtvii

h

B"

L

c,

Edd.; virtute B'

H

b; virtutei Vzhltn,

42

;

ROOK
Make we
Wills
it

I.

xii-xiii

the

trial

by valour in arms and see
I^

if

Dame

Fortune that ye shall prevail or too, this

or

what be her

judgment.

Hear thou,

word, good Fabricius: whose

valour soever

Spared hath been by the fortune of war their freedom I grant them. Such my resolve. I give and present them to you,

—

my brave Romans Take them back to

their

homes

;

the great gods'

blessings attend you."

A

right kingly sentiment this and worthy a scion of the Aeacidae. XIII. Again, if under stress of circumstances Fideiity to individuals have made any promise to the enemy, RT^r'^^! s

n

they are bound to keep their word even then. For War, when Regulus was taken prisoner by the Carthaginians, he was sent to Rome on parole to negotiate an exchange of prisoners; he came and, in the first place, it was he that made the motion in the senate that the prisoners should not be restored ; and in the second place, when his relatives and friends would have kept him back, he chose to return to a death by torture rather than prove false to his promise, though given to an enemy. And again in the Second Punic War, after the Battle of Cannae, Hannibal sent to Rome ten Roman captives bound by an oath to return to him, if they did not succeed in ransoming his prisoners and as long as any one of them hved, the censors kept them all degraded and disfranchised, because they were instance, in the First Punic
;

(2) Hannibal's ^^'^°'^^'

;

CICERO DE OFFICIIS censores, quoad quisque in aerariis

eorum

vixit,

qui peierassent,

reliquerunt nee minus illum, qui iuris

iurandi fraude culpam invenerat. balis Cum enim

Hanni-

permissu exisset de

eastris, rediit

paulo post,

quod

se oblitum nescio quid diceret ; deinde egressus

e castris iure iurando se solutum putabat, et erat verbis, re

non

erat.

Semper autem cogitandum. in fide quid

senseris,

non quid

dixeris,

a

Maximum autem exemplum est iustitiae in hostem maioribus nostris constitutum, cum a Pyrrho pervenenum regi fuga senatui est polHcitus se et daturum

eum necaturum,

senatus et C. Fabricius perfugam

Pyrrho dedidit.

Ita

ne hostis quidem et potentis interitum et bellum ultro inferentis approbavit.]^

cum

scelere

41

Ac de

bellicis

quidem

officiis satis

dictum

est.

Meminerimus autem etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse servandam. Est autem infima condicio et fortuna servorum, quibus non male praecipiunt qui ita iubent

uti,

ut mercennariis

:

operam exigendam,

iusta praebenda.

Cum autem fiat iniuria,

duobus modis,

id est aut vi aut fraude,

fraus quasi vulpeculae, vis leonis videtur fraus odio digna
. . .

utnimque homine alienissimum, sed
^Secundo havit om.
. .
.

re

A

B

H

a b

non erat om. L p, Edd.

c;

Sccundo

appro-

44

;

BOOK in I.

xiii

guilty of perjury in not returning.

And they punished

hke manner the one who had incurred guilt by an evasion of his oath: with Hannibars permission this man left the camp and returned a Httle later on the pretext that he had forgotten something or other and then, when he left the camp the second time, he claimed that he was released from the obhgation of his oath and so he was^ according to tlie letter of it,
;

In the matter of a but not according to the spirit. promise one must always consider the meaning and not the mere words. Our forefathers have given us another striking example of justice toward an enemy when a deserter from Pyrrhus promised the senate toadminister poison to the king and thus work his death, the senate and Gaius Fabricius dehvered the deserter up to Pyrrhus. Thus they stamped with their disapproval the treacherous murder even of an enemy who was at once powerful, unprovoked, aggressive,
:

and successful. With this I will close connected with war. for justice

my

discussion of the duties
Justicetoward

remember that we must have regard even towards the humblest. Now the humblest station and the poorest fortune are those of slaves and they give us no bad rule who bid us treat our slaves as we should our employees: they must be required to work they must be given their
But
let us
;
;

dues.

While wrong may be done, then, in either of two injustice cf '^yp"'^'''^^waysj that is, by force or by fraud, both are bestial fraud seems to belong to the cunning fox, force to the hon; both are wholly unworthy of man, but fraud is the more contemptible. But of all forms of
:

4>5

CICERO DE OFFICIIS maiore. Totius

autem iniustitiae nulla

capitalior

quam

eorumj qui tum, viri cum maxime dictum. erat

fallunt^ id agunt, ut

boni esse videantur. iustitia satis

De
Ch. VII

42

XIV. DeincepSj ut

propositum, de benefi-

centia ac de liberalitate dicatur, qua

quidem

nihil

est naturae hominis accommodatius, sed habet multas

cautiones.

Videndum iis ipsis,

est enim,

primum ne sit obsit fieri, benignitas et et ceteris,

quibus benigne videbitur

deinde ne maior benignitas

quam

facultates,

tum

ut pro dignitate cuique tribuatur;

id

enim

est iustitiae

fundamentum, ad quam haec

referenda sunt omnia. cuipiam, quod obsit illi, Nam

et

qui

gratificantur

cui prodesse velle videantur,

non

benefici

neque

liberales,

sed perniciosi assentanocent, ut in alios

tores iudicandi sunt, et qui liberales sint, in

aliis

eadem sunt

iniustitia, ut si in

suam et rem
43

aliena convertant.

Sunt autem multi, et quidem cupidi splendoris gloriae, qui eripiunt aliis,

quod

aliis

largiantur, iique iri, si

arbitrantur se beneficos in suos amicos visum

locupletent eos

quacumque officio, ratione.

Id autem tan-

tum

abest ab

^

ut nihil magis officio possit esse est igitur, ut ea liberalitate

contrarium.

Videndum

utamur, quae prosit amicis, noceat nemini.
L. Sullae, C. Caesaris

Quare

pecuniarum in translatio a iustis

'

ab

c,

Edd.; not

A

B U L

b.

46

:

BOOK injustice, I.

xiii-xiv

none is more flagrant than that of the hypocrite who^ at the very moment when he is most false, makes it his business to appear virtuous. This must conclude our discussion of justice. XIV. Next in order, as outhned above, let us Justice speak of kindness and generosity. Nothing appeals more to the best in human nature than this, but it calls for

and

the exercise of caution in many particulars in the fii*st place, see to it that our act of kindness shall not prove an injury either to the object of our beneficence or to others; in the second place, that it shall not be beyond our means and finally, that it shall be proportioned to the worthiness of the recipient; for this is the corner-stone of justice; and by the standard of justice all acts of For those who confer kindness must be measured. a harmful favour upon some one whom they seemingly wish to help are to be accounted not generous benefactors but dangerous sycophants; and likewise those who injure one man, in order to be generous to another, are guilty of the same injustice as if they diverted to their own accounts the property of their neighbours. Now, there are many and especially those who Generosity must who rob one (i) hurtful to uo are ambitious for eminence and glory to enrich another ; and they expect to be thought °°®> generous towards their friends, if they put them in the way of getting rich, no matter by what means. Such conduct, however, is so remote from moral duty that nothing can be more completely opposed We must, therefore, take care to indulge to duty. only in such hberahty as will help our friends and hurt no one. The conveyance of property by Lucius SuUa and Gaius Caesar from its rightful owners to

we must,

;

—

—

47

CICERO DE OFFICIIS dominis ad alienos non debet est liberalis videri; nihil

enim

liberale,

quod non idem iustum.

44

Alter loeus erat cautionis, ne benignitas maior esset esse,

quam quam

facultates, quod, qui benigniores volunt

res patitur,

primum
;

in eo peccant,

quod
^

miuriosi sunt in proximos

quas enim copias his

et

suppeditari aequius est et relinqui, eas transfex-unt

ad ahenos.

Inest

autem

in taU Uberalitate cupiditas

plerumque rapiendi et auferendi per iniuriam, ut ad largiendum suppetant copiae.
Videre etiam hcet

plerosque non tam natura liberales gloria ductos, ut

quam quadam

benefici videantur, facere multa,

quae

proficisci

ab ostentatione magis quam a volun-

tate videantur.

Tahs autem simulatio

vanitati esl

coniunctior

quam

aut hberahtati aut honestati.

45

Tertium

est propositum, ut in beneficentia dilectus
;

esset dignitatis in in

quo et mores

eius erunt spectandi,

quem

beneficium conferetur, et animus erga nos et societas vitae et
;

communitas ac officia ad nostras utihtates

ante collata
;

quae ut concurrant omnia, opta-

bile est

si

minus, plures causae maioresque ponderis

plus habebunt.

46

XV. Quoniam autem
^his

vivitur

non cum
c.

perfectis

H

a,

Edd.;

iis

A.Bh; eish

48

BOOK

I.

xiv-xv

the hands of strangers should^ for that reason, not be regarded as generosity ; for nothing is generous,

not at the same time just. point for the exercise of caution was that our beneficence should not exceed our means; for those who wish to be more open-handed than tlieir circumstances permit are guilty of two faults first, they do wrong to their next of kin; for they transfer to strangers property which would more justly be placed at their service or bequeathed to them. And second, such generosity too often engenders a passion for plundering and misappropriating property, in order to supply the means for making large gifts. We may also observe that a great many people do many things that seem to be inspired more by a spirit of ostentation than by heart-felt kindness; for such people are not really generous but are rather influenced by a sort of ambition to make a show of being open-handed. Such a pose is nearer akin to hypocrisy than to generosity or moi'al goodness. if it is

The second

(2)

within our

:

The

third

rule laid

down was

that in acts of

(3)

according

tc

kindness we should weigh with discrimination the worthiness of the object of our benevolence; we should take into consideration his moral character, his attitude toward us, the intimacy of his relations to us, and our common social ties, as well as the services he has hitherto rendered in our interest. It is to be desired that all these considerations should be combined in the same person; if they are not, then the more numerous and the more important considerations must have the greater weight. XV. Now, the men we hve with are not perfect E 49

CICERO DE OFFICIIS hominibus planeque sapientibus, sed praeclare agitur si cum iis, in quibus

sunt simulacra virtutis, etiam hoc

intellegendum puto, neminem omnino esse neglegendumj in quo aliqua significatio virtutis appareat, colendum autem esse ita quemque maxime, ut quisque maxime virtutibus his lenioribus erit ornatus, modestia, temperantia, hac ipsa, de qua multa iam Nam fortis animus et magnus dicta sunt, iustitia. in homine non perfecto nec sapiente^ ferventior plerumque est, illae virtutes bonum virum videntur potius attingere.

Atque haec
47

in moribus.

De nos, benivolentia autem,

quam quisque habeat

erga tri- primum

illud est in officio, ut ei

plurimum

buamus, a quo plurimum diligamur,^ sed benivolentiam non adulescentulorum more ardore quodam amoris, sed stabilitate potius et constantia iudicemus.

Sin erunt merita, ut non ineunda, sed referenda gratia, sit

maior quaedam cura adhibenda est; nullum

enim est. officium referenda gratia magis necessarium

si

quae utenda acceperis, maiore mensura, iubet reddere Hesiodus, quidnam beneficio provocati facere debemus ? an imitari agros fertiles, qui multo plus efferunt quam acceperunt? Etenim si in eos, quos speramus nobis profuturos,

Quodsi

ea,

modo

possis,

non dubitamus officia conferre, quales in eos esse debemus, qui iam profuerunt ? Nam cum duo genera sapiente MSS. sapienti Wesenberg-, Bt. 2 diligamur A B^ H L b c diligiynur BS Bt'. 50
'

;

;

:

BOOK and ideally wise, but

I.

XV

men who do very well, if there be found in them but the semblanee of virtue. I therefore think that this is to be taken for granted. that no one should be entirely neglected who shows any trace of virtue but the more a man is endowed with these finer virtues temperance, self-control, and that very justice about which so much has already beensaid the more lie deserves to befavoured. I do not mention fortitude, for a courageous spirit in a man who has not attained perfection and ideal wisdom is generally too impetuous it is those other virtues that seem more particularly to mark the
;

—

—

;

good man. So much

in regard to the character of the object of our beneficence. But as to the affection which anyone may have for us, it is the first demand of duty that we do most for him who loves us most; but we should measure affection, not Hke youngsters, by the ardour of its passion, but rather by its strength and conBut if there shall be obhgations already stancy.

Motives to
^i"^o°|i*>'=

(2) requital,

incurred, so that kindness is not to begin with us, but to be requited, still greater dihgencCj it seems, is called for; for

no duty

is

more imperative than

that of proving one's gratitude.

Hesiod bids, one is to repay with interwhat one has borrowed in time of need, what, pray, ought we to do when challenged by an unsought kindness? Shall we not imitate the fruitful fields, which return more than they receive? For if we do not hesitate to confer favours upon those who we hope will be of help to us, how ought we to deal with those who have already helped us ? For generosity is of two kinds

But

if,

as

est, if

possible,

e2

51

liberalitatis

CICERO DE OFFICIIS sint, unum dandi beneficii,

alterum red

demus necne, in nostra potestate est^ non rcddere viro bono non licet, modo^ id facere possit dendi, sine iniuria.

49

Acceptorum autem beneficiorum sunt bendi, nec dubium^ quin

dilectus ha-

maximo cuique plurimum In quo tamen in primis, quo quisque debeatur. animo, studio, benivolentia facerit, ponderandum est.
Multi enim faciunt multa temeritate quadam sine iudicio vel

morbo

in

omnes

vel repentino

quodam iudi- quasi vento impetu animi incitati; quae beneficia

aeque magna non sunt habenda atque cio, ea,

quae

considerate constanterque delata sunt. in collocando beneficio et in referenda gratia, sunt, Sed si cetera paria

hoc maxime ita officii

est,

ut

quisque maxime opis indigeat, opitulari; ei

potissimum

quod contra fit a plerisque; a quo enim plurimum sperant/ etiamsi ille iis non eget, tamen ei potissimum inserviunt.

50

XVI. Optime autem oque servabitur, ita in si, societas

hominum

coniuncti-

ut quisque erit coniunctissimus,

eum

benignitatis

plurimum conferetur.

Sed, quae naturae principia sint communitatis et

humanae, repetendum videtur altius; est primum, quod cernitur in universi generis huenim mani societate. Eius autem vinculum est ratio et societatis ^

modo A H L b c 5/ viodo B. ^sperant Marg. A, Edd.; spectant
;

A

b {spemant Marg.

b).

52

BOOK

I.

xv-xvi

doing a kindness and requiting one. Whether we do the kindness or not is optional; but to fail to requite one is not allowable to a good manj provided he can make the requital without violating the rights of others.

Furthermore, we must make some discrimination between favours received for^ as a matter of course,
;

the greater the favour^ the greater is the obhgation. But in deciding this we must above all give due weight to the spirit, the devotion, the affection, that prompted the favour. For many people often do favours impulsively for everybody without discrimination^ prompted by a morbid sort of benevolence or by a sudden impulse of the heart, shifting as the wind. Such acts of generosity are not to be so highly esteemed as those which are performed with judgmentj dehberationj and mature consideration. But in bestowing a kindness, as well as in making other a requitalj the first rule of duty requires us things being equal to lend assistance preferably to people in proportion to their individual need. Most people adopt the contrary course they put themselves most eagerly at the service of the one from whom they hope to receive the greatest favours, even though he has no need of their help. XVI. The interests of society, however, and its common bonds will be best conserved^ if kindness be shown to each individual in proportion to the

—

—

:

(3) seif-interest,

W

reiationship,

closeness of his relationship. But it seems we must trace back to their ultimate The principles of ^*'^'*" society. sources the principles of fellowship and society that

nature has estabUshed among men. The first principle is that which is found in the connection subsisting between all the members of the human race; and

i

j

j

53

:

CICERO DE OFFICIIS quae docendoj discendo, communicando, disceptandoj iudicando conciliat inter se homines coniungitque naturali quadam societate neque ulla re longius absumus a natura ferarum, in quibus inesse oratio, ;

iustitiam, aequitatem,

fortitudinem saepe dicimus, ut in equis, in leonibus, bonitatem non dicimus; sunt

enim
51

rationis et orationis expertes.

latissime quidem patens hominibus inter ipsos, omnibus inter omnes societas haec est in qua omnium rerum, quas ad communem hominum usum natura genuit, est servanda communitas, ut, quae discripta^ sunt legibus et iure civili, haec ita tene;

Ac

antur, ut sit constitutum

legibus ipsis,^ cetera sic

observentur, ut in Graecorum proverbio est, amico-

rum esse communia omnia. Omnium^ autem communia hominum videntur ea, quae sunt generis eius, quod ab Ennio positum in una re transferri in permultas potest
(Teiephus?) Vahlen2, Fab. inc. 398

Quasi lumcn de suo iumine accendat,
Nihilo minus ipsi liicet/

^

Homo, i qui erranti comiter monstnit viam,
,

n

i

,

-,

,

r

facit.

cum

illi

accenderit.

Una

ex re

satis praecipit, ut,

quicquid sine detri-

52 mento commodari

possit, id tribuatur vel ignoto; ex
:

quo sunt ente, pati
'

illa

communia non prohibere aqua profluab igne ignem capere, si qui velit,consilium

^

"

b, Edd. descripta B L a c. discripta legibus ipsis Gulielmus, Edd. ; e {ex c) quibtcs tpsis
;

H

A

MSS.
a.

^ *

Omnium Zumpt, ipsi lucet
Th.

Edd.

;

Edd. 07nnia MSS. ipsi luceat A B H b c ipsi ut luceat
; ;

^KOwa.

(twv^
11).

. virgo vin illa et si quid eius modi Salmacida, spolia sine sudore et sanguine.
.

.

Contraque in laudibus, quae magno animo et
^

fortiter

et

.

.

.

capienda om. Facciolati, Edd.

^

deducendoqzie p; duccndoqiie

A BH L

a b (superscr

sec.

m. demendd)

;

demendoque
;

c.

3«sEdd.;
*enim
illa" Orelli.
^

AwMSS. A B H b c etenim virgo "viri"

a. illa Ed.;

virgo vtrt

MSS.; virago

^ Cloelia (see Index).

62

:

BOOK

I.

xviii

a brother or a friend; but should it be a case in court, one would defend a kinsman and a friend rather than a neighbour. Such questions as these must, therefore^ be taken into consideration in every act of moral duty [and we must acquire the habit and keep it up], in order to become good calculators of duty, able by adding and subtracting to strike a balance correctly and find out just how much is due to each individual. But as neither physicians nor generals nor orators can achieve any signal success without experience and practice, no matter how well they may understand the theory of their profession^ so the rules for the discharge of duty are formulated, it is true, as I am doing now^ but a matter of such importance requires experience also and practice. This must close our discussion of the ways in which moral goodness, on which duty depends, is developed from those principles which hold good in

human

society.
Fortitude

must reahze, however, that while we have set C. down four cardinal virtues from which as sources moral rectitude and moral duty emanate, that achievement is most glorious in the eyes of the world which is won with a spirit great, exaltedj and superior to the vicissitudes of earthly Hfe. And so, when we wish to hurl a taunt, the very first to rise to our Hps is, if possible, something Hke this

We

For ye, young men^ show a womanish maiden^ a man's;"

soul,

yon

and

this:

Salmacis, win spoils that cost nor sweat nor blood." When, on the other hand, we wish to pay a compli63

Thou son of

CICERO DE OFFICIIS excellenterque gesta sunt, ea nescio quo modo quasi Hinc rhetorum campus de pleniore ore laudamus.

Marathone, Salammej Plataeis, Thermopylis, Leuctris,

Scipiones,

hinc noster Cocles/ hinc Decii, hinc Cn. et P. hinc M. MarcelluSj innumerabiles alii, ipse populus

maximeque gloriae, militari.

dine excelHt.

Romanus animi magnituDeclaratur autem studium belHcae quoque videmus ornatu fere in pericuhs

quod

statuas

62

XIX. Sed ea animi elatio, quae cernitur et laboribuSj si iustitia

vacat pugnatque non pro salute

communi, sed pro

modo enim nitatls id virtutis

omnem

commodisj in vitio est; non non est, sed est potius immahumanitatem repellentis. Itaque suis probe definitur a Stoicis fortitudo, cum eam virtutem Quocirca esse dicunt propugnantem pro aequitate. nemo, qui fortitudinis gloriam consecutus est insidiis et malitia, laudem est adeptus; nihil enim^ hone-

stum esse
Menex.

potest,

quod

iustitia vacat.

gg

Lachw
107

B

Non/* inquit, Pracclarum igitur illud Platonis: solum scientia, quae est remota ab iustitia, calHditas potius quam sapientia est appeHanda, verum etiam animus paratus ad periculum, si sua cupiditate,
'

non tes utilitate communi impeUitur, nomen habeat quam fortitudinis."

audaciae potius
Itaque viros for-

magnanimos eosdem bonos et simpHces, amicos minimeque faUaces esse volumus; quae sunt ex media laude iustitiae. et^ veritatis cocles Leuctris, hinc noster Cocles Baldwin, Edd. leutris stera b ; leutrister chodes c ; leutris stercodes L. B L b, Bt^. "^enim A C, Edd.; not in A B » et a, Edd. ; not in A B L b c p.
^
;

A

H

H

H

64

B

g/-

I.

xviii-xix

ment, we somehc ^jg^- other praise in more eloquent strain the brave .j^ .oble work of some great soul. Hence there is f/ en field for orators on the subjects of Marathf w Salamis, Plataea, Thermopylae,
' ;

and Leuctra, anr icnce our own Cocles, the Decii, Gnaeus and Pu ms Scipio, Marcus Marcellus, and countless others, fud, above all, the

Roman People is as a nation are ^elebrated for greatness of spirit.

Their passion for miUtary glory, moreover, in the fact that soldier's garb.

shown

we

see

their statues usually in

XIX. But

if

the exaltation of

spirit

seen in times

Fortitude in the

of danger and toil is devoid of justice and fights for selfish ends instead of for the common good, it is a vice for not only has it no element of virtue, but its nature is barbarous and revolting to all our finer The Stoics, therefore, correctly define feeUngs. courage as "that virtue which champions the cause Accordingly, no one has attained to true of right." glory who has gained a reputation for courage by treachery and cunning for nothing that lacks justice
; ;

can be morally right.

must

Not only is a fine saying of Plato's knowledge that is divorced from justice be but called cunning rather than wisdom," he says, even the courage that is prompt to face danger, if it is inspired not by public spirit, but by its own selfish
This, then, all :

purposes, should have the name of effrontery rather than of courage." And so we demand that men who are courageous and high-souled shall at the same time be good and straightforward, lovers of truth, and foes to deception for these qualities are the centre and soul of justice.
;

F

65

CICERO DE
64

OiTlC^IIS

Laches 182 E

odiosum est, quiAscin hac elatione et magnitudine animi facillime jet^inacia et nimia cupiditas principatus innascituiTl' Ut enim apud Platonem est, omnem morem Lao^jdaemoniorum inillud

Sed

flammatum esse cupiditate vincendi, sic, ut quisque animi magnitudine maxime excellet/ ita maxime vult princeps omnium vel potius solus esse. Difficile

autem

est,

cum

praestare omnibus concupieris, ser-

vare aequitatem, quae est iustitiae

maxime

propria.

ut neque disceptatione vinci se nec ullo publico ac legitimo iure patiantur, existuntque in re fit, Ex quo

publica plerumque largitores et factiosi, ut opes

quam

maximas consequantur et sint vi^ potius superiores quam iustitia pares. Sed quo difficilius, hoc praeclarius nullum enim est tempus, quod iustitia vacare
;

debeat. Fortes igitur et magnanimi sunt habendi, non qui 65 faciunt, sed qui propulsant iniuriam. Vera autem et sapiens animi magnitudo honestum illud, quod maxime natura sequitur, in factis positum, non in gloria iudicat principemque se esse mavult quam etenim qui ex errore imperitae multitudinis videri pendet, hic in magnis viris non est habendus. Facil;

lime autem ad res iniustas impellitur, ut quisque altissimo animo

est, gloriae cupiditate^;

est sane lubricus,

quod

qui locus vix invenitur, qui laboribus

non quasi mercedem rerum gestarum desideret gloriam. susceptis periculisque aditis
'

A B H L b c excellit a, Bt. vi a, Edd. w/* A B H b utcumque L c. ' altissimo ajiimo est, gloriae cupiditnte Pearce (confirmed by several MSS. ), Edd. alt. an. et gloriae cupiditate A B b p est alt. an. et gloria et cupiditate L c. excellet ;

*

;

;

;

H

;

66

BOOK

I.

xix

But the mischief is that from this exaltation and greatness of spirit spring all too readily self-will and excessive lust for power. For just as Plato tells us that the whole national character of the Spartans was on fire with passion for victory^ so, in the same way, the more notable a man is for his greatness of spirit, the

more ambitious he

is to be the foremost citizen, or, I But when one should say rather, to be sole ruler. begins to aspire to pre-eminence, it is difficult to preserve that spirit of fairness which is absolutely essential to justice. The result is that such men do not allow themselves to be constrained either by argument or by any public and lawful authority but
;

they only too often prove to be bribers and agitators in pubhc Hfe, seeking to obtain supreme power and to be superiors through force rather than equals through justice. But the greater the difficulty, the greater the glory; for no occasion arises that can excuse a man for being guilty of injustice. So then, not those who do injury but those who xrue greatness °^sp"'*' prevent it are to be considered brave and courageous. Moreover, true and philosophic greatness of spirit regards the moral goodness to which nature most aspires as consisting in deeds, not in fame, and preAnd fers to be first in reahty rather than in name. we must approve this view for he who depends upon the caprice of the ignorant rabble cannot be numbered among the great. Then, too, the higher a man's ambition, the more easily he is tempted to acts of injustice by his desire for fame. We are now, to be sure, on very shppery ground for scarcely can the man be found who has passed through trials and encountered dangers and does not then wish for glory as a reward for his achievements. 67 v2
;
;

CICERO DE OFFICIIS
66
rebus nihil XX. Omnino fortis animus et magnus duabus maxime cernitur, quarum una in rerum externarum despicientia ponitur, cum persuasum est hominem, nisi

quod honestum decorumque

sit,

aut admirari aut optare aut expetere oportere nulh-

que neque homini neque perturbationi animi nec fortunae succumbere. sis Altera est res, ut,

cum

ita

afFectus animo, ut supra dixi, res geras

illas quidem et maxime utiles, sed [utj arduas plenasque laborum et periculorum cum vitae, tum multarum rerum, quae ad vitam pertinent.

magnas vehementer

67

Harum rerum duarum splendor omnis, ampHtudo, addo etiam utihtatem, in posteriore est, causa autem magnos viros in priore; in eo est quod excellentes animos et humana contemnentes facit. Id autem ipsum cernitur in duobus, si et solum id, quod honestum sit, bonum iudices et ab omni animi perturbatione Hber sis. Nam et ea, quae eximia plerisque et praeclara videntur, parva ducere eaque ratione stabiH firmaque contemnere fortis animi magnique ducendum est, et ea, quae videntur acerba, quae multa et varia in hominum et ratio efficiens illud, enim

vita fortunaque versantur, ita ferre, ut nihil a statu naturae discedas, niliil a dignitate sapientis, robusti 68 animi est magnaeque constantiae. Non est autem

consentaneum, qui metu non frangatur, vinci a voluptate.
^

eum

frangi

cupiditate nec, qui invictum se a labore praestiterit,

Quam

ob rem et haec vitanda^
p.

persuasum

est

Madvig

(ad de Fin.

448

ff. ),

Edd. p.
;

sit

MSS.
^

vitanda Edd. (cum duobus codd. Guelpherbytanis);

'idenda

MSS.

68

;

BOOK

I.

XX
Characteristica "

XX. The soul that is altogether courageous and great is marked above all by two charaeteristics

:

one of these is indifference to outward circumstances for such a person cherishes the conviction that nothing but moral goodness and propriety deserves to be either admired or wished for or striven after, and that he ought not to be subject to any man or any The second passion or any accident of fortune. is that, when the soul is disciplined in the way above mentioned, one should do deeds not only great and in the highest degree useful, but extremely arduous and laborious and fraught with danger both to hfe and to many things that make hfe worth hving. All the glory and greatness and, I may add, all the (i) ^oral usefulness of these two characteristics of courage are centred in the latter the rational cause that makes men great, in the former. For it is the former that indifference contains the element that makes souls pre-eminent fortunes!'^ and indifferent to worldly fortune. And this quahty is distinguished by two criteria: (l) if one account moral rectitude as the only good and (2) if one be For we must agree that it free from all passion. takes a brave and heroic soul to hold as shght what most people think grand and glorious, and to disAnd it regard it from fixed and settled principles. requires strength of character and great singleness

characteristic

>7

;

;

of purpose to bear what seems painful, as it comes to pass in many and various forms in human hfe, and to bear it so unflinchingly as not to be shaken in the least from one's natural state of the dignity of a Moreover, it would be inconsistent 68 philosopher. for the man who is not overcome by fear to be over-

come by

desire, or for the

man who has shown himself by pleasure. 69
.

invincible to toil to be conquered

We

CICERO DE OFFICIIS et pecuniae fugienda cupiditas nihil enim est tam angusti animi tamque parvi quam amare divitias,
;

honestius magnificentiusque quam pecuniam contemnere, si non habeas, si habeas, ad beneficentiam liberalitatemque conferre. Cavenda etiam est gloriae cupiditas, ut supra dixi; eripit enim libertatem, pro qua magnanimis viris omnis debet esse contentio. Nec vero imperia expetenda ac potius aut non accipienda interdum nihil 69

numquam. Vacandum autem omni est animi cum cupiditate et metu^ tum etiam aut deponenda non

perturbatione, aegritudine et

voluptate nimia^ et iracundia, ut tranquillitas animi et securitas adsit, quae affert cum constantiam, tum Multi autem et sunt et fuerunt, etiam dignitatem.

qui eam, quam dico, tranquillitatem expetentes a negotiis publicis se removerint ad otiumque perfugerint; in his et nobihssimi philosophi longeque principes et quidam homines severi et graves nec populi nec principum mores ferre potuerunt, vixeruntque non nulli in agris delectati re sua famihari. 70 His idem propositum fuit, quod regibus, ut ne qua re egerent, ne cui parerent, libertate uterentur, cuius

proprium est sic vivere, ut vehs. XXI. Quare cum hoc commune sit potentiae cupidorum cum iis, quos dixi, otiosis, alteri se
^

voluptate nimia Orelli, Miiller
;
;

;

vohiptate

animi k

H L

a b c vol. animi et secnritas {et iraciindia ut tr. animi by a laterband on the margiii) B voluptate [a?iitni], Bt., Heine.
» ^ is As Cicero did at the expiration of his consulship. As Sulla did in his dictatorship. The cont rast to Caesar

the more striking for Cicero's not mentioning it. oe.g. Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, ^ Snch as Cicero's friend, Atticus, and Marcus Piso.

70

.

BOOK

I.

xx-xxi

must, therefore, not only avoid the latter, but also beware of ambition for wealth for there is nothing so characteristic of narrowness and littleness of soul as the love of riches; and there is nothing more honourable and noble than to be indifferent to money if one does not possess it, and to devote it to beneficence and Uberahty, if one does possess it. As I said before, we must also beware of ambition for glory for it robs us of Hberty, and in defence of hberty a high-souled man should stake everything. And one ought not to seek miHtary authority nay, rather it ought sometimes to be declined,^ sometimes
; .

;

;

to be resigned.^
)

Again, we must keep ourselves free from every (3) Freedom disturbing emotion, not only from desire and fear, but also from excessive pain and pleasure, and from angei*^ so that we may enjoy that calm of soul and freedom from care which bring both moral stabiHty and dignity of character. But there have been many and stiH The retired life are many who^ while pursuing that calm of soul of vvhich I speak, have withdrawn from civic duty and taken refuge in retirement. Among such have been

found the most f amous and by sophers*^ far

the foremost philo-

[)

and certain other'^ earnest, thoughtful men who could not endure the conduct of either the people or their leaders; some of them, too^ Hved in the country and found their pleasure in the management of their private estates. Such men have had the same aims as kings to suffer no want, to be subject to no authority, to enjoy their Hberty, that is, in its essence, to Hve just as they please. XXI. So, while this desire is common to men of poHtical ambitions and men of retirement, of whom I have just spoken, the one class think they cau

—

71

CICERO DE OFFICIIS adipisci id posse arbitrantur, alteri, si si opes magnas habeant, et parvo.

contenti sint et suo

In quo est, neutrorum omnino contemnenda sententia et facilior et tutior et

sed

minus

aliis

gravis aut molesta

vita est otiosorum^ fructuosior

autem hominum generi

et

ad claritatem amplitudinemque aptior eorum, qui

se

ad rem publicam et ad magnas res gerendas ac-

commodaverunt.
71

Quapropter et

iis

forsitan

concedendum

sit

rem

pubhcam non

capessentibus, qui excellenti ingenio iis, doctrinae sese dediderunt, et imbecillitate aut

qui aut valetudinis r( aHqua graviore causa impediti a

publica recesserunt,

cum si eius administrandae potC'

statem talis aliis

laudemque concederent. Quibus autem sit nulla

causa,

despicere se dicant ea, quae iis plerique mirentur, imperia et magistratus,

non

verum etiam vitio dandum puto; quorum iudicium in eo, quod gloriam contemnant et pro nihilo putent, difficile factu est non probare sed videntur labores et molestias, tum offensionum et repulsarum quasi quandam ignominiam timere et laudi, ;

modo non

infamiam.

Sunt enim, qui in rebus

contrariis

parum

sibi constent, voluptatem severissime contemnant, in

dolore sint molliores, gloriam neglegant, frangantur infamia, atque ea

quidem non

satis constanter.

72

Sed iis, qui habent a natura adiumenta rerum gerendarum, abiecta omni cunctatione adipiscendi 72

;

BOOK attain their

I.

xxi
Theiifeof

they secure large means; the other, if they are content with the httle they have. And in this matter^ neither way of thinking is altogether to be condemned but the life of retirement is easier and safer and at the same time less burdensome or troublesome to others, while the career of those who apply themselves to statecraft and to conducting great enterprises is more profitable to

end

if

^^

icsemce

reUremen^t

;

mankind and contributes more ness and renown. So perhaps those

to their

own

great-

of extraordinary genius to learning must be excused for not taking part in pubhc affairs; hkewise, those who from ill-health or for some still more vahd reason have retired from the service of the state and left to others the opportunity and the But if those who have glory of its administration. no such excuse profess a scorn for civil and mihtary offices, which most people admire, I think that this should be set down not to their credit but to their

men

who have devoted themselves

discredit; for in so far as they care Httle, as they

and count it as naught, it is difficult not to sympathize with their attitude; in reahty, however, they seem to dread the toil and trouble and also, perhaps, the discredit and humihation of For there are people political failure and defeat. who in opposite circumstances do not act consistently: they have the utmost contempt for pleasure, but in pain they are too sensitive; they are indifferent to glory, but they are crushed by disgrace and even in their inconsistency they show no great say, for glory

consistency,

But those whom Nature has endowed with the eapacity for administering pubhc affairs should put
73

Pubiicservic * '^"'^*

CICERO DE OFFICIIS magistratus et gerenda res publica est; nec enim aliter aut regi civitas aut declarari animi magnitudo potest. Capessentibus autem rem publicam nihilo ^

minus quam philosophis, haud

scio

an magis etiam
^

et magnificentia et despicientia adhibenda est

re-

rum humanarum, quam saepe

dico^ et tranquilhtas

animi atque secui'itas, siquidem nec anxii futuri 73 sunt et cum gravitate constantiaque victuri. Quae faciUora sunt philosophis, quo minus multa patent in eorum vita^ quae fortuna feriat, et quo minus multis rebus egent, et quia, si quid adversi eveniat, tam graviter cadere non possunt. Quocirca non sine causa maiores motus animorum concitantur maioraque studia efficiendi^ rem pubhcam gerentibus quam quietis, quo magis iis et magnitudo est animi adhibenda et vacuitas ab angoribus. Ad rem gerendam autem qui accedit, caveat, ne id modo consideret, quam illa res honesta sit, sed etiam ut habeat efficiendi facultatem; in quo ipso considerandum est, ne aut temere desperet propter ignaviam aut nimis confidat propter cupiditatem. In omnibus autem negotiis, prius quam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio dihgens.

74

XXII. Sed cum plerique arbitrentur res belhcas maiores esse quam urbanas, minuenda est haec opinio. Multi enim bella saepe quaesiverunt propter gloriae cupiditatem, atque id in magnis animis ingeniisque plerumque contingit, eoque magis, si sunt ad rem mihtarem apti et cupidi bellorum
^nihilo Wesenberg', Edd. nihil MSS. est Maniitius, Edd.; sit MSS. maioraque studia efficiendi Ung^er, Miiller ; maioraque L b c ; maiorque cura efficiendi a, Bt., efficiendi A^ B
; '^
'^

H

Heine

;

maioraque efficienda

A'-'

p.

74

BOOK

I.

xxi-xxii

pubhc office, and take a hand in directing the government; for in no other way can a government be administered or greatness of spirit be made manifest. Statesmen, too, no less than philosophers perhaps even more aside all hesitation, enter the race for so —should carry with them that

—

greatness of spirit

and indifference to outwai'd circumstances to which I so often refer, together with calm of soul and freedom from care, if they are to be free from worries 73 and lead a dignified and self-consistent life. This is exposed wants are fewer and if any misfortune overtakes them, their fall is not so disastrous. Not without reason, therefore, are stronger emotions aroused in those who engage in pubhc hfe tlian in those who Uve in retirement, and greater is their ambition for success; the more, therefore, do they need to enjoy greatness of spirit and freedom from annoying cares. If anyone is entering pubHc life, let him beware of thinking only of the honour that it brings but let him be sure also that he has the abihty to At the same time, let him take care not succeed. to lose heart too readily through discouragement nor yet to be over-confident through ambition. In a word, before undertaking any enterprise, careful preparation must be made. XXII. Most people think that the achievements Victories of war Ji of war are more important than tliose of peace but victoriesof For many men peace. this opinion needs to be corrected. have sought occasions for war from the mere ambi;

easier for the philosophers

as their hfe is less

to the assaults of fortune, their

;

;

;

tion for fame.

This is notably the case with men of great spirit and natural abihty, and it is the more Ukely to happen, if they are adapted to a soldier's

75

CrCERO DE OFFICIIS gerendorum vere autem
;

si

volumus iudicare, multae

res exstiterunt bellicae. urbanae maiores clarioresque quam iure laudetur et

75

Quamvis enim Themistocles eius sit

nomen quam

Solonis illustrius citeturque Salavictoriae,

mis clarissimae

testis

quae anteponatur

consilio Solonis ei^quo

primum constituit Areopagitas, non minus praeclarum hoc quam illud iudicandum est; illud enim semel profuit, hoc semper proderit civitati; hoc consilio leges Atheniensium, hoc maioet Themistocles

rum ille instituta servantur;

quidem at nihil dixerit, in

quo ipse Areopagum adiuverit,
;

vere a^ se adiutum Themistoclem

est

enim

bellum gestum consilio senatus erat constitutus.

eius, qui a

Solone

76

Licet eadem de Pausania Lysandroque dicere, quorum rebus gestis quamquam imperium Lacedaemoniis partum ^ putatur, tamen ne minima quidem ex parte Lycurgi legibus et disciplinae conferendi sunt;

quin etiam ob has ipsas causas et parentiores habuerunt exercitus et fortiores. pueris nobis

M. Scaurus

C.

Mihi quidem neque Mario neque, cum ver-

saremur in re publica, Q. Catulus Cn. Pompeio cedere videbatur; parvi enim sunt foris arma, nisi est '

consiUum domi; nec plus Africanus, singularis
; ; ;

a Edd. not in MSS. se adiutum A B H b, Edd. adinvit p se adiutum ab illo dixerit (?) Thcmistoclcs \?. partum L., Bt.; om. par^ L. partum Lambinus, Miiller tum A' B II L' a b L. dilatatum A'^; dilatatum L. L'-' c.
L' c
; ;

;

76

BOOK life I.

xxii

and fond of warfare.

But there if

we

will face the

have been many instances of achievement in peace more important and no less renowned than in war. However highly Themistocles, for example, may Themistocles "* be extolled and deservedly and however much solon. more illustrious his name may be than Solon's, and however much Salamis may be cited as witness of a victory glorified above his most glorious victory Solon's statesmanship in instituting the Areopagus yet Solon's achievement is not to be accounted less illustrious than his. For Themistocles's victory served the state once and only once while Solon's work For through his legislawill be of service for ever. tion the laws of the Athenians and the institutions And while Theof their fathers are maintained. mistocles could not readily point to any instance in which he himself had rendered assistance to the Areopagus, the Areopagus might with justice assert that Themistocles had received assistance from it; for the war was directed by the counsels of that senate which Solon had created. The same may be said of Pausanias and Lysander. Pausanias and Although it is thought that it was by their achieve- ^^^" yl ments that Sparta gained her supremacy, yet these Lycurgus. are not even remotely to be compared with the Nay, rather, legislation and discipline of Lycurgus. it was due to these that Pausanias and Lysander had armies so brave and so well disciplined. For my own partj I do not consider that Marcus Scaurus was inferior to Gaius Marius, when I was a lad, or Quintus Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey, when I was engaged in public life. For arms are of little value in the field unless So, too, Africanus, there is wise counsel at home. 77 facts, we

shall

find that

—

—

—

—

;

:

CICERO DE OFFICIIS et vir et imperator, in exscindenda

Numantia

rei

publicae profuit privatus, cura

quam eodem tempore P. Nasica Ti. Gracchum interemit; quamquam quoniam vi manuque confecta

haec quidem res non solum ex domestica est ratione
(attingit etiam bellicam, est), sed tamen id ipsum est gestum consilio urbano

sine exercitu.

77

Illud

autem optimum

est, in

quod invadi

solere

ab

improbis et invidis audio

Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea

laudi."

Ut enim

alios

omittam, nobis rem pubUcam guberfuit gravius

nantibus nonne togae arma cesserunt? neque enim

periculum in re publica

umquam

nec

maius otium. riter Ita consiliis diligentiaque nostra cele-

de manibus audacissimorum civium delapsa ipsa ceciderunt.

arma

Quae

res igitur gesta

umquam licet 78 in bello tanta?

qui triumphus conferendus?

enim mihi, M.

fili,

apud

te gloriari^

ad quem et here-

ditas huius gloriae et factorum imitatio pertinet. Mihi quidem certe vir abundans bellicis laudibus, Cn. Pompeius^ multis audientibus hoc tribuit, ut diceret frustra se triumphum tertium deportaturum fuisse, nisi

meo

in

rem publicam

beneficio, ubi tri-

umpharet, esset habiturus. Sunt igitur domesticae fortitudines non inferiores

»The praises of Cicero for his overthrow of the conspiracy of Catiline. ^The laurels of Ihe triumphant general.
78

:

!

BOOK

I.

xxii

though a great man and a soldier of extraordinary abilitjj did no greater service to the state by destroying Numantia than was done at the same time by Publius Nasica, though not then clothed with official This authority, by removing Tiberius Gracchus. deed does not, to be sure, belong wholly to the domain of civil afFairs it partakes of the nature of war alsOj since it was efFected by violence but it waSj for all that, executed as a poKtical measure without the help of an army. The whole truth, however, is in this verse, against 77 which, I am told, the maHcious and envious are wont
; ;

cicero's great ^*° °^^'

to rail

Yield, ye arms, to the toga laurels."*' ;

to civic praises,^ ye

Not

to the toga,

to mention other instances, did not arms yield when I was at the helm of state ? For never was the repubUc in more serious peril, never

was peace more profound. Thus, as the result of my counsels and my vigilance, their weapons slipped suddenly from the hands of the most desperate traitors dropped to the ground of their own accord What achievement in war, then, was ever so great ? 78 What triumph can be compared with that? For I may boast to you, my son Marcus for to you belong the inheritance of that glory of mine and the duty of imitating my deeds. And it was to me, too, that Gnaeus Pompey, a hero crowned with the honours of war, paid this tribute in the hearing of many, when he said that his third triumph would have been gained in vain, if he were not to have through my services to the state a place in which to celebrate

—

;

it.

There

are, therefore, instances of civic courage

79

CICERO DE OFFICIIS militaribus ;

in quibus plus etiam est. quam

in his operae

studiique

ponendum

79

XXIII, Omnino

illud

honestum, quod ex animo efficitur, excelso magnificoque quaerimus, animi corporis viribus.

non

Exercendum tamen corpus negotiis id,

et ita

afficiendum in est,

ut oboedire consiho rationique possit et in

exsequendis

labore

tolerando. est Honestum autem

quod exquirimus, totum

positum in animi cura et cogitatione; in

quo non

minorem utihtatem praesunt, afferunt, qui togati rei

pubhcae

quam

qui

beUum

gerunt.

Itaque eorum

consiho saepe aut non suscepta aut confecta beha sunt, non numquam etiam

illata,

ut

M. Catonis

bellum tertium Punicum, in quo etiam mortui valuit
80 auctoritas.

Quare expetenda quidem magis fortitudo, est

decernendi ratio quam decertandi

sed

cavendum, ne

id bellandi

magis fuga quam utihtatis ita suscipiatur,

ratione faciamus. nihil aliud nisi

Bellum autem

ut

pax quaesita videatur.

Fortis vero animi et constantis est in rebus asperis

non perturbari deici, nec tumultuantem de gradu

ut dicitur, sed praesenti animo uti et consiho nec a ratione discedere.

81

Quamquam est, hoc animi,

illud

etiam ingenii magni ante praecipere cogitatione futura et aliquanto
^aliquanto Edd.; aliguando

MSS.

SO

BOOK

I.

xxii-xxiii

that are not inferior to the cnurage of the soldier. Nay, the former calls for even greater energy and greater devotion than the latter. XXIII. That moral goodness which we look for in (2) Physicai a lofty, high-minded spirit is secured, of course, by '^°^'^^s^moral, not by physical, strength. And yet the body must be trained and so disciplined that it can obey the dictates of judgment and reason in attending to business and in enduring toil. But that moral goodness which is our theme depends whoUy upon the thought and attention given to it by the mind. And in this way, the men who in a civil capacity direct the affairs of the nation render no less important service than they who conduct its wars by their statesmanship oftentimes wars are either averted or terminated sometimes also they are declared. Upon Marcus Cato's counsel, for example, the Third Punic War was undertaken, and inits conduct hisinfluence was dominant, even after he was dead. And so diplomacy in the friendly settlement of controversies is more desirable than courage in setthng them on the battlefield but we must be careful not to take tliat course merely for the sake of avoiding war rather than for the sake of public expediency. War, however, should be undertaken in such a way as to make it evident that it has no other object than to secure peace. But it takes a brave and resolute spirit not to be disconcerted in times of difficulty or ruffled and thrown ofF one's feet, as the saying is, but to keep one's presence of mind and one's self-possession and not to swerve from the path of reason. Now all this requires great personal courage ; but courage and it calls also for great intellectual abihty by reflection discretion.
: ; ;

G

81

CICERO DE OFFICIIS constituere, quid accidere possit in et quid

utramque partem,

agendum

sit,

cum

quid evenerit, nec comsit
:

mittere, ut aliquando

dicendum

Non putaram."

Haec sunt opera magni animi dentia consilioque fidentis; versari et

et excelsi et pru-

temere autem in acie

manu cum

lioste confligere
;

immane

quid-

dam

beluarum simile est sed cum tempus necessitasque postulat, decertandum manu est et mors et servituti turpitudinique

anteponenda.

82

XXIV. De deliter. evertendis autem diripiendisque urbibus

valde considerandum est ne quid temere, ne quid crusontes,

Idque est magni viri, rebus agitatis punire multitudinem conservare, in omni fortuna recta atque honesta retinere. Ut enim sunt, quem

ad

modum

supra dixi, qui urbanis rebus bellicas sic reperias

anteponant, calida multos, quibus periculosa et

consilia quietis et cogitatis^ splendidiora et

maiora videantur.

83

Nunquam omnino

periculi fuga

committendum

est,

ut imbelles timidique videamur, sed fugiendum illud etiam, ne offeramus nos periculis sine causa, quo esse nihil potest stultius.

Quapropter

in

adeundis periest,

cuHs consuetudo imitanda medicorum

qui leviter

aegrotantes leniter curant, gravioribus autem morbis periculosas curationes et ancipites adhibere coguntur.

Quare

in tranquillo

tempeslatem adversam

^calida Nonius, Edd.; callida MSS. * consilia quietis et cogiiatis Edd. ; consilia et quietis et cogitationis A. B a b; consilia et quietis cogitationibus Q p.

H

82

BOOK advance what

I.

xxiii-xxiv

some time in good or for ill, and what must be done in any possible event, and never to be reduced to having to say "l had not to anticipate the future, to discover

may happen whether

for

thought of that." These are the activities that mark a spirit, strong, high, and self-rehant in its prudence and wisdom. But to mix rashly in the fray and to fight hand to hand with the enemy is but a barbarous and brutish kind of business. Yet when the stress of circumstances demands it, we must gird on the sword and prefer death to slavery and disgrace. XXIV. As to destroying and plundering cities, let rae saj- that great care should be taken that nothing be done in reckless cruelty or wantonness. And it is a great man's duty in troublous times to single out the guilty for punishment, to spare the many, and in every turn of fortune to hold to a true and honourable course. For whereas there are many, as I have said before, who place the achievements of war above those of peace, so one may find many to whom adventurous, hot-headed counsels seem more brilliant and more impressive than calm and well-considered measures. We must, of course, never be guilty of seeming Courage cowardly and craven in our avoidance of danger but aingeu we must also beware of exposing ourselves to danger needlessly. Nothing can be more foolhardy than that. Accordingly, in encountering danger we should do as doctors do in their practice in light cases of illness they give mild treatment in cases of
;
:

in timc ^^"^

;

dangerous sickness they are compelled to apply hazardous and even desperate remedies. It is, therefore, only a madman who, in a calm, would pray g2 83

;

CICERO DE OFFICIIS optare dementis

est,

subvenire autem tempestati si quavis ratione sapientis, eoque magis, scare re explicata boni

plus adipi-

quam

addubitata mali. iis^ Periculosae

autem rerum actiones partim

sunt,

qui eas suscipiunt, partim rei publicae. alii Itemque

de

vita, alii

discrimen vocantur.

de gloria et benivolentia civium in Promptiores igitur debemus

esse ad nostra pericula quam ad communia dimicareque paratius de honore et gloria quam de ceteris commodis. Inventi autem multi sunt, qui non modo pecu84

niam, sed etiam -vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, iidem gloriae iacturam ne minimam quidem facere vellent, ne re publica quidem postulante ut
;

Callicratidas, qui,

cum Lacedaemoniorum dux fuisset

tit

Peloponnesiaco bello multaque fecisset egregie, verad extremum omnia, cum consilio non paruit eorum, qui classem ab Arginusis removendam nec cum Atheniensibus dimicandum putabant; quibus ille respondit Lacedaemonios classe illa amissa aHam parare posse, se fugere sine suo dedecore non posse. Atque haec quidem Lacedaemoniis^ plaga mediocris, illa pestifera,

qua, cum Cleombrotus invidiam timens temere cum Epaminonda conflixisset Lacedaemoni-

orum opes
*

corruerunt.
;

iis Edd. his MSS. ^guidem Lacedaemoniis Edd., quidem de Lacedaemoniis

MSS. life, ''Such as the esteem and good-will of fellow-citizens liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; the exisf*"'^^^ of the state and all the advantages it brings.

84

BOOK
;

I.

xxiv

for a storm a wise man's way is, when the storm does come, to withstand it with all the means at his commandj and especially, when the advantages to be expected in case of a successful issue are greater than the hazards of the struggle. The dangers attending great afFairs of state fall Patriotism and "^^"' °*' sometimes upon those who undertake them, some- ^^ In carrying out such entertimes upon the state. prises, some run the risk of losing their Hves, others their reputation and the good-will of their fellowIt is our duty, then, to be more ready to citizens. endanger our own than the pubhc welfare and to hazard honour and glory more readily than other advantages.* Many, on the other hand, have been found who were ready to pour out not only their money but their hves for their country and yet would not consent to make even the shghtest sacrifice of pereven though the interests of their sonal glory country demanded it. For example, when Calhcratidas, as Spartan admiral in the Peloponnesian War, had won many signal successes, he spoiled everything at the end by refusing to hsten to the proposal of those who thought he ought to withdraw his fleet from the Arginusae and not to risk an engagement His answer to them was that with the Athenians. " the Spartans could build another fleet, if they lost that one, but he could not retreat without dishonour And yet what he did dealt only a to himself " shght blow to Sparta; there was another which proved disastrous, when Cleombrotus in fear of criticism recklessly went into battle against Epaminondas. In consequence of that, the Spartan power

—

fell.

85

CICERO DE OFFICIIS
Ann.
xii,

Vahlen-^, 370-372

Ouanto Q. Maximus melius! de quo Ennius: ^^ ,. , Unus nomo nobis cunetando restituit rem.
,
.

.

Noenum rumores ponebat

^

ante salutem.

Ergo postque magisque viri nunc gloria claret. Quod genus peccandi vitandum est etiam in rebus Sunt enim, qui, quod sentiunt, etsi optiurbanis. mum sitj tamen invidiae metu non audeant ^ dicere.
Rep.
i.

342

XXV. Omnino qui rei publicae praefuturi sunt, 85 E (Juo Platonis praecepta teneant, unum, ut utilitatem civium sic

tueantur, ut,

quaecumque agunt, ad eam alterum, ut

Rep.

iv,

420 R

refcrant

obliti

commodorum suorum,

totum corpus sic rei publicae curent, ne,

dum partem

aliquam tuentur, reliquas deserant. Ut enim tutela, procuratio rei publicae ad eorum utilitatem, qui commissi sunt, nbn ad.eorum, quibus commissa est, gerenda est. Qui afttem parti civium consulunt, partem neglegunt, rem perniciosissimam in civitatem inducunt, seditionem atque discordiam; ex quo evenit, ut alii populares, alii studiosi optimi cuiusque videantur, pauci universorum. Hinc apud Atheniensis magnae discordiae, in 86 nostra re publica non solum seditiones, sed etiam pestifera bella civilia; quae gravis et fortis civis et
"^

198) alii. ^

Noenum rumores ponehat Lachmann (ad Lucr. III, Non enim rumores ponebat MSS. A^on ponebat enim
;
;

audeant Ernesti

;

audent MSS.,

Bt.',

Heine.

*Sacrificing public interests to personal glory. l» From the death of Pericles on. i^Such as the conspiracy of Catiline. ^ The civil wars of Marius and SuUa, Caesar

and

Pompey.

86

BOOK
How much
Maximus!

1.

xxiv-xxv

Of him Ennius delaying. better was the conduct of Quintus says state "One man
Not

—and he alone — restored our now does

by

in the least did

fame with him take prece-

dence of safety
Therefore
his glory shine bright,

and

it

grows ever brighter."
This sort of ofFence'* niust be avoided no less in For there are men who for fear of poUtical Ufe. giving offence do not darc to express their honest opinion, affairs

of government sliould not lail to remember two must be iree ^""^ of Plato's rules first, to keep the good of the people own inso clearly in view that regardless of their terests they wiU make their every action conform to that; second, to care for the welfare of the whole body poUtic and not in serving the interests of some (i) partisanship one party to betray the rest. For the administration of the government, Uke the office of a trustee, must be conducted for the benefit of those entrusted to one's care, not of those to whom it is entrusted. Now, those who care for the interests of a part of the citizens and neglect another part, introduce disseninto the civil service a dangerous element The result is that some sion and party strife. are found to be loyal supporters of the democratic, others of the aristocratic party, and few of the nation
:

no matter how exceUent. XXV. Those who propose to take ^
^:,

^^^ charge of the P^^K
.

, administration

..

—

as a whole. i As a

result of this party spirit bitter strife arose

at Athens,'' sensions'^ and in our own country not only disbut also disastrous civil wars^ broke oct. 87

CICERO DE OFFICIIS in re publica dignus principatu fugiet atque oderit

tradetque se totum

rei

publicae neque opes aut sic tuebitur, falsis

potentiam consectabitur totamque eam

ut omnibus consulat; nec vero criminibus

in

odium aut invidiam quemquam vocabit omninoque ita iustitiae

honestatique adliaerescetj ut, offendat illa,

dum

ea

conservet,

quamvis graviter

mortemque dixi. oppetat potius
87
ep. vi, 48S

quam

deserat

quae

Miserrima omnino est ambitio honorumqtie con-

B; tcntio,
^^

de qua praeclare apud eundem est Platonem,

J9C

similiter facere eos, qui inter se contenderent, uter

potius seTc^"' rem publicam

administraret, ut

si

nautae cer-

tarent, quis

eorum potissimum gubernaret."

Idem-

856B

'

que praecipit, ut

eos adversarios existimemus, qui

arma contra

ferant,

non

eos, qui

suo iudicio tueri

rem publicam et Q.

velint," qualis fuit inter P.

Africanum

Metelhim

sine acerbitate dissensio.

S8

Nec

vero audiendi, qui graviter inimicis irascenfortis viri esse

dum

putabunt idque magnanimi et

censebunt; nihil enim laudabilius, nihil.magno et praeclaro viro dignius placabihtate atque clementia.

In libcris vero popuhs et in iuris aequabihtate exer88

BOOK
All this the citizen

I.

XXV

who is patriotic, brave, and wortliy

of a leading place in the state will shim with abhorrence he will dedicate himself unreservedly to his country, without aiming at influence or power for himself; and he will devote himself to the state in its entirety in such a way as to further the interests of all. Besides, he will not expose anyone to hatred or disrepute by groundless charges, but he will surely cleave to justice and honour so closely that he will submit to any loss, however heavy, rather than be untrue to them, and will face death itself rather
;

than renounce them. A most wretched custom, assuredly, is our elec- (2) self-seeking, Concerning tioneering and scrambling for office. Those this also we find a fine thought in Plato: who compete against one another/' he says, to see which of two candidates shall administer the government, are like sailors quarrelhng as to which one of them shall do the steering." And he Hkewise lays down the rule that we should regard only those as adversaries who take up ai-ms against the state, not those who strive to have the government administered according to their convictions. This was the spirit of the disagreement between PubHus Africanus and Quintus Metelhis there was in it no trace of
:

rancour.

Neither must we hsten to those who think that (3) vindictiveone should indulge in violent anger against one's '^*'^*' pohtical enemies and imagine that such is the attitude of a great-spirited, brave man. For nothing is more commendable, nothing more becoming in a pre-eminently great man than courtesy and forbearance. Indeed, in a free people,

where

all

enjoy equal rights before the law^

we

89

CICERO DE OFFICIIS cenda etiam bus est facilitas et altitudo animi,

quae

dicitur, ne, si irascamur aut intempestive accedenti-

aut impudenter

rogantibus,

in

morositatem ita pro-

inutilem et odiosam incidamus.

Et tamen

bunda rei est

mansuetudo atque clementia, ut adhibeatur potest. publicae causa severitas^ sine qua administrari

civitas

non

Omnis autem

et animadversio

et castigatio contumelia vacare debet

neque ad

eius,

qui punitur' aliquem aut verbis castigat/ sed ad rei publicae utilitatem referri.

89

Cavendum sit, est etiam,

ne maior poena quam culpa alii et

ne isdem de puniendo causis alii plectantur,

ne

appellentur quidem. est ira in
;

Prohibenda autem maxime enim, iratus qui acce-

numquam

det ad poenam, mediocritatem illam tenebit, quae est inter

nimium

et

parum, quae placet

Peripateticis,

et recte placet,

modo ne laudarent iracundiam
Illa
ii,

et

dicerent utiliter a natura datam. in rebus

vero omnibus qui repudianda est optandumque, ut rei publicae,

praesunt

legum in similes sint, quae ad

puniendum non
90

iracundia, sed aequitate dicuntur.

XXVI. Atque etiam

rebus prosperis et ad

voluntatem nostram fluentibus superbiam magno^

2

puiiitur Nonlus, Edd. punii a puniet castigat MSS.; fatigat Nonius, Orelli.
;

;

ABH

b

c.

The quality elsewliere expressed by Cicero with paO&rrit depth,' ' reserve,' the art of concealing' and controUing' one's feelings under an outward serenity of manner.

—

»
'

90

BOOK mental poise"*; for if

I.

xxv-xxvi afFability must school ourselves to

and what

is

called

when people intrude upon us at unseasonable hours or make unreasonable requests, we shall develop a sour^ churHsh are irritated

we

temper, prejudicial to ourselves and ofFensive to others. And yet gentleness of spirit and forbearance are to be commended only with the understanding that strictness may be exercised for the good of the state; for without that, the government cannot be well administered. On the other hand, if punishment or correction must be administered, it need not be insulting; it ought to have regard to the welfare of the state, nottothe personal satisfaction of the man who administers the punish-

ment

or reproof.

should take care also that the punishment not be out of proportion to the ofFence, and that some shall not be chastised for the same fault for which others are not even called to account. In administering punishment it is above all necessary to allow no trace of anger. For if anyone proceeds in a passion to inflict punishment, he will never observe that happy mean which lies between excess and defect. This doctrine of the mean is approved by the Peripatetics and wisely approved, if only they did not speak in praise of anger and tell us shall We

W anger

—

that it is a gift bestowed on us by Nature for a good purpose. But in reality, anger is in every circumstance to be eradicated and it is to be desired that
;

they who administer the government should be Hke the laws, which are led to inflict punishment not by wrath but by justice^^^ XXVI. Again, when fortune smiles and the stream of hfe flows according to our wishes, let us dihgently
91

Fortitude in
P''"*?®"'^*

CICERO DE OFFICIIS pere, fastidium arrogantiamque fugiamus.

Nam

ut

adversas res, est, sic

seeundas immoderate ferre levitatis

praeclaraque est aequabilitas in omni vita et frons, ut

idem semper vultus eademque itemque^ de

de Socrate

C. Laelio accepimus.^

Philippum qui-

dem, Macedonum regem^ rebus gestis et gloria superatum a filio, facilitate et humanitate video superiorem fuisse itaque alter semper magnus, alter
;

saepe turpissimus; ut recte praecipere videantur, qui monent, ut, quanto superiores simus, tanto nos

geramus summissius.

Panaetius quidem Africanum, ait dicere,

auditorem et famiharem suum, solitum

'^ut equos propter crebras contentiones proeliorum

ferocitate

exsultantes domitoribus tradere soleant,

ut

iis ^

facilioribus possint uti, sic

homines secundis

rebus effrenatos sibique praefidentes

tamquam oportere, in

gyrum

rationis

et

doctrinae

duci

ut

perspicerent rerum

humanarum imbecilHtatem

varie-

tatemque fortunae."
91

Atque etiam in secundissimis rebus maxime est utendum consilio amicorum iisque maior etiam quam Isdemque temporibus ante tribuenda auctoritas.

cavendum

est,

ne assentatoribus patefaciamus auris

neve^ adulari nos sinamus, in quo faUi facile est; tales enim nos esse putamus, ut iure laudemur; ex
^

2

B H* L b itenique H- a, Edd. ; idcmqiie B' accepitmis B'^ a c, Edd. accipiinus
;

A

c.

A

H

b.

8«^ Edd.; A«5MSS.
*

neve Nonius, Edd.

;

nec

MSS.

92

BOOK avoid all

I.

xxvi

arrogance, haughtiness, and pride. For it is as much a sign of weakness to give way to one's But it feelings in success as it is in adversity. is a fine thing to keep an unruffled temper, an unchanging mien, and the same cast of countenance in every condition of life; tliis, history tells us, was characteristic of Socrates and no less of Gaius Laehus. Philip, king of Macedon, I observe, however surpassed by his son in achievements and fame, was superior to him in affabihty and refinement. Philip, accordingly, was always great Alexander, often infamously bad. There seems to be sound advice, therefore, in this word of warning The higher we are placed, the more humbly should we walk." Panaetius tells us that Africanus, his pupil and friend, used to say As, when horses have
;
: :

Humility.

become mettlesome and unmanageable on account of their

frequent

participation

in

battles,

their

owners put them in the hands of trainers to make them more tractable; so men, who through prosperity have become restive and over self-confident, ought to be put into the training-ring, so to speak, of reason and learning, that they may be brought to

comprehend the

fiailty

of

human

affairs

and the

fickleness of fortune."

The greater our prosperity, moreover, the more should we seek the counsel of friends, and the greater the heed that should be given to their advice. Under such circumstances also we must beware of lending an ear to sycophants or allowing them to impose upon us with their flattery. For it is easy in this way to deceive ourselves, since we thus come to think ourselves duly entitled to praise and to this frame of mind a thousand delusions
;

93

CICERO DE OFFICIIS quo nascuntur innumerabilia peccata, cum homines inflati opinionibus turpiter irridentur et in maximis versantur erroribus.

92

Sed haec quidem hactenus. Illud autem sic est iudicandum, maximas geri res et maximi animi ab iis,^ qui res publicas regant, quod earum administratio latissime pateat ad phirimosque pertineat; esse autem magni animi et fuisse multos etiam in vita otiosa, qui aut investigarent conarentur magna quaedam seseque suarum rerum finibus continerent aut interiecti inter philosophos et eos, qui rem publicam administrarent, delectarentur re sua famihari non eam quidem omni ratione exaggerantes neque excludentes ab eius usu suos potiusque et amicis impertientes et rei pubhcae, aut si

quando usus

esset.

Quae primum bene neque parta^

sit

nullo neque turpi quaestu

odioso,

deinde

augeatur ratione, diligentia, parsimonia,^ tum quam dignis, se utilem praebeat nec plurimis, modo Hbidini potius luxuriaeque quam hberahtati et beneficentiae pareat.

Haec viter pi-aescripta servantem licet magnifice, graanimoseque vivere atque etiam simphciter,

fideliter, t

vere

hominum ut sit,

amice. in 93

XXVII. honestatis Sequitur,

dicendum

de una rehqua parte qua verecundia et quasi

Uts Edd.;
2
'^

parfa deinde it

/iis MSS. BS Edd. parata A B^
; .

.

.

H L a b c. parsimonia Edd., after Unger, transpose tum . .

;

in

MSS.

follows

.

pareat.

Ȥ70.
94>

BOOK

1.

xxvi-xxvfi

may be traced, when men are pufFed up with conceit and expose themselves to ignominy and ridicule by committing the most egregious blunders. So much for this subject. To revert to the original question^ we must Greatness of decide that the most important activities, those ^nd in"private most indicative of a great spirit, are performed by ''^^-

—

the

men who direct the afFairs of nations ; for such public activities have the widest scope and toucli the lives of the most people. But even in the Hfe of retirement there are and there have been many high-souled men who have been engaged in important inquiries or embarked on most important enterprises and yet kept themselves within the Hmits of their own affairs; or, taking a middle course between philosophers on the one hand and statesmen on the other, they were content with managing their own property not increasing it by any and every means nor debarring their kindred from the enjoyment of it, but rather, if ever there were need, sharing it with their friends and with the state. Only let it, in the first place, be honestly acquired, by the use of no dishonest or fraudulent means; let it, in the second place, increase by wisdom, industry, and thrift; and, finally, let it be made available for the use of as many as possible (if only they are M-orthy) and be at the service of generosity and beneficence rather than of sensuality

—

and excess.

By observing these rules, one may live in magnificence, dignity, and independence, and yet in honour, truth and charity toward all.
XXVII. We have next to discuss the one remaining division of moral rectitude. That is the one 95
d. Temperance.

CICERO DE OFFICIIS quidam ornaUis vitae, temperantia et modestia omnisque sedatio perturbationum animi et rerum modus cernitur. Hoc loco continetur id, quod dici Latine decorum potest Graece enim TrpeTrov dicitur. Huius' vis ea est, ut ab honesto non queat separari nam et, quod decet, honestum est et, quod honestum est, decet qualis autem differentia
;
; ;

94-

sit

honesti et decori, facilius intellegi

quam

explanari

Quicquid est enim, quod deceat, id tum apparet, cum antegressa est honestas. Itaque non solum in hac parte honestatis, de qua hoc loco disserendum est, sed etiam in tribus superioribus quid deceat apparet. Nam et ratione uti atque oratione prudenter et agere, quod agas, considerate omnique in re quid sit veri videre et tueri decet, contraque falli, errare, labi, decipi tam dedecet quam delirare et mente esse captum et iusta omnia decora sunt, iniusta contra, ut turpia, sic indecora. potest. ;

Similis est ratio fortitudinis. Quod enim viriliter animoque magno fit, id dignum viro et decorum videtur, quod contra, id ut turpe, sic indecorum. Quare pertinet quidem ad omnem honestatem 95 hoc, quod dico, decorum, et ita pertinet, ut non

recondita

quadam
Huius

promptu.
^

ratione cernatur, sed sit in Est enim quiddam, idque intellegitur
Y.A6..;

dicitur.

dicitur decorum.

Aw/w.y

MSS.

Decorum Cicero's attempt to translate irpiwov, means an appreciation of the fitness of thingfs, propriety iii inward feeling- or outward appearance, inspeech, behaviour, dress, Decorum is as didicult to translate into EngHsh as etc. as an adjective, it is here irpiirov is to reproduce in Latin rendered by proper,' as a noun, by propriety.'
!' ;
'

'

96

BOOK in I.

xxvii

which we find considerateness and self-control, which give, as it were, a sort of pohsh to Hfe; it embraces also temperance, complete subjection of all the passions, and moderation in all things. Under this head is further included what, in Latin, Propriety may be called decorum^ (propriety); for in Greek Such is its essential nature, it is called Kpkirov.^ that it is inseparable from moral goodness for wliat is proper is morally right, and what is morally right The nature of the difference between is proper. morahty and propriety can be more easily felt than For whatever propriety may be, it is expressed.
;

there is pre-existing moral not onlj'^ in this division of moral rectitude which we have now to discuss but also in the three preceding divisions, it is clearly brought out what propriety is. For to employ reason and speech rationally, to do with careful consideration whatever one does, and in everything to discern the that is proper. To be truth and to uphoid it mistaken, on the other hand, to miss the truth, to fall into error, to be led astray that is as improper as to be deranged and lose one's mind. And all things just are proper; all things unjust, Hke all things immoral, are improper.

manifested only

when

rectitude.

And

so,

Proprietyand
'"

virtyl^

—

—

The relation of propriety to fortitude is similar. What is done in a manly and courageous spirit seems becoming to a man and proper; what is done in a contrary fashion is at once immoral and improper. This propriety, therefore, of which I am speaking belongs to each division of moral rectitude; and its relation to the cardinal virtues is so close, that it is perfectly self-evident and does not require any abstruse process of reasoning to see it. For H 97

CICERO DE OFFICIIS in omni

virtute,

quod deceat corporis ;

quod cogitatione

magis a virtute potest quam re stas et pulchritudo

valetudine, sic illud Ut venunon potest a hoc^ de quo loquimur, decorum totum separari. secerni

quidem

est

cum

virtute confusum, sed

mente

et cogitatione distinguitur.

96

Est autem eius discriptio^ duplex; rale nam quod et genein

quoddam decorum

intellegimus,

omni illud honestate versatur, et ahud huic subiectum, quod pertinet ad singulas partes honestatis. superius sic fere definiri solet:

Atque decorum id

esse,

quod consentaneum sit hominis excellentiae in eo, in quo natura eius a reliquis animantibus difFerat. Quae autem pars subiecta generi est, eam sic definiunt, ut id decorum velint esse, quod ita naturae consentaneum sit, ut in eo moderatio et temperantia appareat cum specie quadam Hberali. XXVIII. Haec ita intellegi possumus existimare 97 ex eo decoro, quod poetae sequuntur: de quo aho Sed tum^ servare illud poeloco plura dici solent. tas, quod deceat, dicimus, cum id, quod quaque persona dignum est, et fit et dicitur; ut, si Aeacus aut Minos diceret: oderint, dum

metuant,

aut: natis sepulchro ipse 6st parens,
*

'

b Edd. descriptio A B H a Sed tum L c, Edd. sed ut tum A B H discriptio ; ;

;

distinctio
b.

Lc

98

BOOK

I.

xxvii-xxviii

there is a certain element of propriety perceptible in every act of moral rectitude; and tliis can be separated from virtue theoretically better than it can be practically. As comeHness and beauty of person are inseparable from the notion of health, so this propriety of which we are speaking, while in fact completely blended with virtue, is mentally and theoretically distinguishable from it.

The fold :

classification of propriety,

moreover,

is

two-

Propriety
"^

a general sort of propriety, which is found in moral goodness as a whole; then (2) there is another propriety, subordinate to this, which belongs to the several divisions of moral goodness. The former is usually defined somewhat as follows: Propriety is that which harmonizes with man's superiority in those respects in which his nature differs from that of the rest of the animal creation." And they so define the special type of propriety which is subordinate to the general notion, that they repi-esent it to be that propriety which harmonizes with nature, in the sense that it manifestly embraces temperance and self-control, together with a certain deportment such as becomes a gentleman.
(l )

we assume

'^^

'

XXVIII. That this is the common acceptation of Poetic propriety we may infer from that propriety which P''°p"^*''' poets aim to secure. Concerning that, I have occasion to say more in another connection. Now, we say that the poets observe propriety, when every word or action is in accord with each individual character. For example, if Aeacus or Minos said
Let them hate, or: if

only they fear/'

The h2 father

is

himself his ch.:ldren's tomb,"

qo

CICEIIO mus; DE

OFFICIIS fuisse iustos accepi-

indecorum videretur, quod eos

at Atreo dicente plausus excitantur; est oratio. enim

digna persona

Sed poetae^ quid quemque

deceat, ex persona iudicabunt; nobis

autem persoexcellentia

nam
98

imposuit ipsa natura

magna cum

praestantiaque animantium reliquarum.

Quoeirca poetae in magna varietnte personarum,

etiam

vitiosis

quid conveniat et quid deceat, vide-

bunt, nobis autem rationis, cum

a natura constantiae,

mode-

temperantiae, verecundiae partes datae sint,

cumque eadem natura doceat non neglegere, quem ad modum illud, nos adversus homines geramus,

efficitur,

ut et

quod ad late omnem sit, honestatem pertinet, appareat et hoc, quod

decorum quam

fusum

spectatur in uno quoque genere virtutis.

pulchritudo corporis

Ut enim apta compositione membrorum quod inter sc

movet oculos

et delectat hoc ipso,

omnes

partes

cum quodam

lepore consentiunt, sic vita, hoc decorum, quod elucet in

movet approbaordine et con-

tionem eorum, quibuscum stantia vivitur,

et

moderatione dictorum

omnium at^ue

factorum.

99

Adhibenda sus est igitur

quaedam reverentia adver-

homines et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum.

Nam

neglegere, quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arro*

reliquarum A' B'

H

ab

;

reliquorum S^ B-

c.

100

BOOK that would lines, I.

xxviii

seem improper, because we are told that they were just men. But when Atreus speaks those they call forth applause for the sentiment is keeping with the character. But it will rest with the poets to decidc;, according to the individual characters^ what is proper for each but to us Nature
;

in

;

herself has assigned a character of surpassing excellence, far superior to that of all other living creatures, and in accoi-dance with that we shall have to decide what propriety requires.

The poets will observe^ therefore, amid a great variety of characters, what is suitable and proper all even for the bad. But to us Nature Morai has assigned the roles of steadfastness, temperance, ^^°P^'''-^y self-control, and considerateness of others Nature also teaches us not to be careless in our behaviour towards our fellow-men. Hence we may clearly see how wide is the application not only of that propriety which is essential to moral rectitude in general, but also of the special propriety which is displayed in each particular subdivision of virtue. For, as physical beauty with harmonious symmetrj^ of the limbs engages the attention and delights the eye, for the very reason that all the parts combine

for

—

;

in harmony and grace, so this propriety, which shines out in our conduct, engages the approbation of our fellow-men by the order, consistency, and

self-control it imposes

upon every word and deed.
Considerateuesi

We men should, therefore, in our dealings with people

show what

—

reverence toward all not only toward the men who are the best, but
I

may almost

call

toward others as well. For indifference to publie opinion implies not merely self-sufficiency, but even total lack of principle. There is, too, a difference be101

CICERO DE OFFICIIS gantis estj sed etiam differat in

omnino dissoluti. Est autem, quod ratione habenda inter iustitiam et verecundiam. lustitiae partes sunt non violare homines, verecundiae non offendere in quo maxime

hominum

;

vis perspicitur decori.

His igitur expositis, quale sit id, quod decere dicimuSj intellectum puto. Officium autem, quod ab eo ducitur, hanc primum 100 habet viam, quae deducit ad convenientiam conservationemque naturae; quam si sequemur ducem, id, quod quod ad hominum consociationem accommodatum, et id, quod vehemens atque forte. Sed maxima vis decori in hac inest parte, de qua disputamus; neque enim solum corporis, qui ad naturam apti sunt, sed multo etiam magis animi motus probandi, qui item ad naturam accommodati sunt. 101 Duplex est enim vis animorum atque natura;^ una pars in appetitu posita est, quae est opiii] Graece, quae hominem huc et illuc rapit, altera in ratione, quae docet et" explanat, quid faciendum fugiendumque ^ sit. Ita fit, ut ratio praesit, appetitus obtem-

numquam acutum aberrabimus sequemurque et

et perspicax natura est, et id,

peret. actio vacare debet temenec vero agere quicquam, cuius non possit causam probabilem reddere; haec ritate XXIX. Omnis autem et neglegentia

est

enim

fere discriptio*

officii.

102

Efficiendum
^

autem

est,

ut

appetitus

rationi

2
^

natura Edd.; naturae MSS. ^^ L c, Edd. not in A B H b.
; ;

fugiendumque A B H a b fugiendumve L *discriptio B H, Bt.^; descriptio A L a b c,
Heine.

c p.
Bt.'^ MuIIer,

102

BOOK

I.

xxviii-xxix

twecR justice and considerateness in one's relations
'o one's fellow-men. It is the function of justice not to do wrong to one's fellow-men; of considerateness, not to wound their feehngs and in this the essence of propriety is best seen. With the foregoing exposition, I think it is clear what the nature is of what we term propriety. Further, as to the duty which has its source in propriety, the first road on which it conducts us leads to harmony with Nature and the faithful observance of her laws. If we follow Nature as our guide, we shall never go astray, but we shall be pursuing that wliich is in its nature clear-sighted and penetrating (Wisdom), that which is adapted to promote and strengthen society (justice), and that which is strong and courageous (Fortitude). But the very essence of propriety is found in the division of virtue which is now under discussion (Temperance). For it is only when they agree with Nature's laws that we should give our approval to the movements not only of the body, but still more of the
;

Dutiespre-

^^ p^J^ew^ ^*^"*

(i)

foUow

'^^^"'^®'

spirit.

find that tne essential activity of the (2)subject *" twofold one force is appetite (that is, opfir'), reason!^ in Greek), which impels a man this way and that the other is reason, which teaches and explains what should be done and what should be left undone. The result is that reason commands, appetite obeys. XXIX. Again, every action ought to be free from undue haste or carelessness neither ought we to do anything for which we cannot assign a reasonable motive; for in these words we have practically a definition of duty. The appetites, moreover, must be made to obey spirit is
:

Now we

;

103

CICERO DE OFFICIIS oboediant eamque neque praecurrant nec propter pigritiam aut ignaviam deserant sintque tranquilli

atque omni animi perturbatione careant; qui ex quo

elucebit omnis constantia omnisque moderatio.

Nam a appetitus longius

evagantur et tamquam ex-

sultantes sive cupiendo sive fugiendo

non

satis

ratione retinentur,

ii^

sine dubio finem et

modum

transeunt

;

relinquunt enim et abiciunt oboedientiam

nec rationi parent, cui sunt subiecti lege naturae; a quibus non modo animi perturbantur, sed etiam corpora. Licet ora ipsa cernere iratorum aut eorum, qui aut libidine aliqua aut

voluptate nimia gestiunt; voces, metu commoti sunt aut quorum omnium voltus, officii motus statusque mutantur. quibus illud intellegitur, ut ad

103

Ex

formam

revertamur, appetitus omnes contrahendos sedan-

dosque esse excitandamque animadversionem et dibgentiam^ ut ne quid temere ac fortuito, inconNeque enim ita siderate neglegenterque agamus. generati a natura sumus^ ut ad

ludum

et

iocum

facti

quaedam Ludo autem et ioco studia graviora atque maiora. uti illo quidem licetj sed sicut somno et quietibus esse videamur, ad severitatem potius et ad ceteris tum,

cum

gravibus

seriisque

rebus

satis

Ipsumque genus iocandi non profusum nec immodestum^ sed ingenuum et facetum esse Ut enim pueris non omnem ludendi licendebet. fecerimus. tiam damus, sed eam, quae ab honestatis actionibus
'

ii

Edd. hi a hii
;

;

H

;

hij c.

104

BOOK

I.

xxix

the reins of reason and neither allowcd to run ahead of it nor from listlessness or indolence to lag behind but people should enjoy calm of soul and be free from every sort of passion. As a result strength Seif-controi ir passions, of character and self-control will shine forth in all For when appetites overstep their their lustre. bounds and galloping away, so to speak, whether in desire or aversion, are not well held in hand by reason, they clearly overleap all bound and measure; for they throw obedience ofF and leave it behind and refuse to obey the reins of reason^ And to which they are subject by Nature's laws. not only minds but bodies as well are disordered by We need only to look at the faces such appetites. of men in a rage or under the influence of some passion or fear or beside themselves with extravagant joy in every instance their features, voices, motions,
; :

attitudes undergo a change. From all this to return to our sketch of duty we see that all the appetites must be controlled

—

and calmed and that we must take infinite pains not to do anything from mere impulse or at random, without due consideration and care. For Nature has not brought us into the world to act as if we were created for play or jest, but rather for earnestness

(2)

amusemcnts,'

and

for some more serious and important pursuits. may, of course, indulge in sport and jest, but in the same way as we enjoy sleep or other relaxations, and only wlien we have satisfied the claims of our Further than that, the manearnest, serious tasks. ner of jesting itself ouglit not to be extravagant or immoderate, but refined and witty. For as we do

We

(3) raiUery,

not grant our children unlimited licence to play, but only such freedom as is not incompatible with
10.0

CICERO DE OFFICIIS non sit aliena, sic

in ipso ioco aliquod probi ingenii est iocandi genus,

104 lumen eluceat.

Duplex omnino petulans, obscenum, alterum elegans, urbanum, ingeniosum, facetum. Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia, sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt, multaque multorum facete dicta, ut ea, quae a sene Catone collecta sunt, quae vocant aTTo4>Biyiiara. Facilis igitur est distinctio ingenui et illiberalis ioci. Alter est, si tempore fit, ut si remisso animo, gravissimo homine dignus,^ alter ne libero quidem, si rerum turpitudini adhibetur verborum^ obscenitas. Ludendi etiam est quidam modus retinendus, ut ne nimis omnia profundamus elatique voluptate in aliquam turpitudinem delabamur. Suppeditant autem et campus noster et studia venandi honesta illiberale, unum

flagitiosum,

105

exempla ludendi. XXX. Sed pertinet ad omnem officii quaestionem semper in promptu habere, quantum natura hominis pecudibus reliquisque beluis antecedat; illae nihil sentiunt nisi voluptatem ad eamque feruntur omni impetu, hominis autem mens discendo alitur et cogitando, semper ahquid aut anquirit aut agit videndique et audiendi delectatione ducitur. Quin etiam, si quis est paulo ad voluptates propensior, modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (sunt enim quidam homines non re, sed nomine), sed si quis est paulo ut si remisso animo, gravissimo homine dignus Ed.; ut (et c) remisso animo homine dignus MSS,;Jit aut si rem. an. magno homine Madvig ',Jit, ut sit remissio animo, hojnine dignus Ung^er. ^ turpitudini adhibetur verhorum A B H a b, Edd. ; turpi» tudo adhibetur et verborum L c.
^

Jit,

fit,

106

BOOK good conduct,
)4

I.

xxix-xxx

so even in our jesting let the light of a pure character shine forth. There are, generally speaking, two sorts of jest: the one^ coarse^ rude, vicious, indecent the other, refined, polite, clever, witty. With this latter sort not only our own Plautus and the Old Comedy of Athens, but also the books of Socratic philosophy abound; and we have many witty sayings of many men hke those collected by old Cato under the title of Bons Mots (or Apophthegms). So the distinction between the elegant and the vulgar jest is an easy matter: the one kind, if well timed (for instance, in hours of mental relaxation), is becoming to the most dignified person the other is unfit for any gentleman, if the subject is indecent and the words obscene. Then, too, certain bounds must be observed in our amusements and we must be careful not to carry things too far and, swept away by our passions,
;

—

;

•5

lapse into some shameful excess. Our Campus, however, and the amusements of the chase are examples of wholesome recreation. XXX. But it is essential to every inquiry about duty that we keep before our eyes how far superior man is by nature to cattle and other beasts: they have no thought except for sensual pleasure and this they are impelled by every instinct to seek; but man's mind is nurtured by study and meditation; he is always either investigating or doing, and he is captivated by the pleasure of seeing and hearing. Nay, even if a man is more than ordinarily inchned to sensual pleasures, provided, of course, that lie be not quite on a level with the beasts of the field (for some people are men only in name, not in fact) if, I say, he Is a little too susceptible 107

(4)pleasure.

—

CICERO DE OFFICIIS erectior, quamvis voluptate

capiatur,

occultat

et

dissimulat

appetitum voluptatis

propter verecun-

diam.

106

Ex quo esse intellegitur corporis voluptatem

dignam hominis
;

praestantia,

non satis eamque contemni

et reici oportere

sin sit quispiam, qui aliquid tribuat

voluptati, diligenter ei

tenendum

esse eius fruendae

modum.

Itaque victus cultusque corporis ad vale-

tudinem referatur et ad vires, non ad voluptatem. Atque etiam si considerare volumus/ quae sit in natura excellentia et dignitas, intellegemus, sit quam

turpe

diffluere

luxuria et delicate ac molliter parce, continenter, severe,

vivere sobrie. quamque honestum

107

Intellegendum etiam est duabus quasi nos a natura indutos esse personis; est quarum una communis

ex eo, quod omnes participes sumus rationis praestantiaeque eius, qua antecellimus bestiis, a qua

omne honestum decorumque inveniendi prie officii trahitur, et ex

qua

ratio

exquiritur, altera autem, quae protributa.

singulis

est

Ut enim

in corporibus

magnae

dissimilitudines sunt (aHos videmus veloci-

1

luctandum valere, itemque in formis ahis dignitatem inesse, aliis venustatem), sic in animis exsistunt maiores etiam varieta08 tcs. Erat in L. Crasso, in L. PhiHppo multus lepos, maior etiam magisque de industria in C. Caesare tate ad cursum, alios viribus ad
*

volumus vellemus A
c.

B'

H*

b; volemus B- H-, Bt., Heine; velimus

L

;

108

BOOK

I.

XXX

he hides the fact, however much he may be caught in its toils, and for very shame conceals his appetite. to the attractions of pleasure,

From

this

we

see that sensual pleasure

is

quite

unworthy of the dignity of man and that we ought to despise it and cast it from us; but if some one should be found who sets some value upon sensual gratification, he must keep strictly within the limits of moderate indulgence. One's physical comforts and wants, therefore, should be ordered according to the demands of health and strength, not according to the calls of pleasure. And if we will only bear in mind the superiority and dignity of our nature, we shall realize how wi'ong it is to abandon ourselves to excess and to live in luxury and vokiptuousness, and

how

right

it

is

to live in thrift, self-

denial, simplicity,

and

sobriety,

We must reahze also that we are invested by xhe universai Nature with two characters, as it were one of these vufuaUature ot is universal, arising from the fact of our being all man. alilvc endowed with reason and with that superiority which Hfts us above tlie brute. From this all moraUty and propriety are derived, and upon it depends the rational method of ascertaining our duty. The other character is the one that is ludividual assigned to individuals in particular. In the matter ^^'^^'^'"«nts.
:

of physical

endowment there

are great differences in some,

we

see, excel in

speed for the race, others

strength for wrestling; so in point of personnl appearance, some have statehness, others comeliness. Diversities of character are greater still. Lucius Crassus and Lucius PhiHppus had a large fund of wit; Gaius Caesar, Lucius's son, had a still richer fund and employed it with more studied purpose.

CICERO DE OFFICIIS
L.
filio;

at

isdem temporibus in M. Scauro et in singularis severitas,

M. Druso adulescente

in

C.

ambitio maior, vita tristior. De Graecis autem dulcem et facetum festivique sermonis atque in omni oratione simulatorem, quem etpoiva Graeci^ nominarunt, Socratem accepimus, contra Pythagoram et Periclem

Laelio multa hilaritas, in eius familiari Scipione

summam auctoritatem

consecutos sine ulla hilaritate.

Callidum Hannibalem ex Poenorum, ex nostris ducibus Q. Maximum accepimus, facile celare, tacere, dissimulare, insidiari,

praeripere hostium

consilia.

In quo genere Graeci Themistoclem et Pheraeum

lasonem

ceteris

anteponunt ahquanto ;

in primisque

versutum

et callidum factum Solonis, qui, vita esset et plus

quo et

tutior eius

rei publicae prodesset,

furere se simulavit.
1

09

Sunt

his alii

multum

dispares, simplices et aperti,

qui nihil ex occulto, nihil de insidiis veritatis cultores, fraudis inimici,

agendum

putant,

itemque

alii,

qui"

quidvis perpetiantur, cuivis deserviant, velint, consequantur, ut

bamus.

Quo

in

Sullam et genere versutissimum et patientis-

dum, quod M. Crassum vide-

contraque Callicratidam, qui praefectus classis proximus post Lysandrum fuit; itemque in sermonibus alium [quemque], quamvis^ praepotens sit, efficere, ut unus
'

simum Lacedaemonium Lysandrum accepimus,

eipuua Graeci Edd.
;

;

ironia graeci
b.
;

ABH

b ; ironian graect

a greci mironian
'^qui
^

c.

AL

c

;

51

B H a

aliunt [quemque] quamvis Ed. alium quemque MSS. ; quemque aliuni quamvis p ; aliquem, Pearce, Bt. ; alium quamvis, Facciolati, Heine.

quamvis quamvis

MO

BOOK

I.

XXX

Contemporary with them, Marcus Scam-us and Marcus Drusus, the younger, were examples of unusual seriousness; Gaius LaeHus, of unbounded jollity; more

serious ideals

Among

while his intimate friend, Scipio, cherished and lived a more austere life. the Greeks, history tells us, Socrates was

and witty, a genial conversationalist he was what the Greeks call etpcov in every conversation, pretending to need information and professing admiration for the wisdom of his companion. Pythagoras and Pericles, on the other hand, reached the heights of influence and power without any fascinating —

seasoning of mirthfulness.

We

read that Hannibal,

among the Carthaginian generals^ and Quintus Maximus, among our own, were shrewd and ready at conceahng their plans, covering up their tracks, disguising their movements, laying stratagems, foreIn these quaUties the stalHng the enemy's designs.
Greeks rank Themistocles and Jason of Pherae Especially crafty and shrewd was a.bove all others. the device of Solon, who, to make his own life safer and at the same time to do a considerably larger service for his country, feigned insanity.

Then there are others, quite different from these, straightforward and open, who think that nothing should be done by underhand means or treachery. They are lovers of truth, haters of fraud. There are others still who will stoop to anything, truckle to anybody, if only they may gain their ends. Such, we saw, were Sulla and Marcus Crassus. The most crafty and most persevering man of this type was Lysander of Sparta, we are told of the opposite type was
;

Callicratidas,

the

fleet.

who succeeded Lysander as admii*al of So we find that another, no matter how
111

CICERO DE OFFICIIS de multis esse videatur; quod in Catulo, et in patre et in filio, itemque in Q. Mucio t Mancia^ Audivi ex maioribus natu hoc idem fuisse vidimus. in P. Scipione Nasica, contraque patrem eius, illuni qui Ti. Gracchi conatus perditos vindicavit, nullam comitatem habuisse sermonis [ne Xenocratem quidem, severissimum philosophorumj ^ ob eamque rem ipsam magnum et clarum fuisse.
Innumerabiles aliae dissimiHtudines sunt naturae

morumque, minime tamen vituperandorum. XXXI. Admodum autem tenenda sunt sua cuique 110 non vitiosa, sed tamen propria, quo facilius decorum Sic enim est illud, quod quaerimus, retineatur. faciendum, ut contra universam naturam nihil contendamus, ea tamen conservata propriam nostram sequamur, ut, etiamsi sint alia graviora atque mehora, tamen nos studia nostra nostrae naturae regula* metiamur; neque enim attinet naturae repugnare nec quicquam sequi, quod assequi non queas. Ex quo magis emergit, quale sit decorum illud, ideo quia nihil decet invita Minerva, ut aiunt, id est adversante et repugnante natura. Omnino si quicquam est decorum, nihil est pro• B b, Ed