...How triangulation Ensures Validity and Reliability in Social Science Research 1.0 Introduction Triangulation has been defined as the use of more than one approach to the investigation of a research question in order to augment confidence in the findings (Bryman, 2004). For Yeasmin & Rahman, (2012) triangulation is a process of verification that increases validity by incorporating several viewpoints and methods. When applied in the social sciences, it refers to the combination of two or more theories, data sources, methods or investigators in one study of a single phenomenon to converge on a single construct, and can be employed in both quantitative (validation) and qualitative (inquiry) studies. This paper provides a historical background and the development of triangulation as a concept and its application. The paper also presents an overview of various concepts linked to triangulation as applied in social research Finally the paper discusses the benefits and challenges of triangulation offering some relevant examples that guide in understanding the concept. 2.0 Background of Triangulation Originally triangulation was a method used to determine the location of a fixed point based on the laws of trigonometry. The laws state that if one side and two angles of a triangle are known, the other two sides and angle of that triangle can be calculated. Triangulation though not defined was used in the early civilizations of the ancient Egypt and Greece...
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...The Research Process Research is defined as “careful study to find and report new knowledge about something” (Merriam-Webster, 2015). The research process is the “systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions and solve problems” (McEwen & Wills, 2014, p. 432). Most elementary students start learning about the scientific method by questioning and hypothesizing in regards to their environment. As students grow older and continue in the academia setting, they build on that fundamental foundation by expanding into the research process. There are a variety of structured research processes and they differ on the number of components; however, the very basic steps are the same: identify a topic or question of interest, review literature for information, plan the method of investigation, collect data, analyze and interpret the data, and disseminate findings. It is the additional break-down of the steps within the basic outline that creates a more detailed and longer process such as determining methods of measurement, defining the population sample to be studied, addressing legal/ethical issues related to human/animal rights, and developing a plan for data collection and analysis. Regardless of how many steps a research process contains, it is critical to ensure the validity of the research itself. Validity encompasses the entire experimental concept and establishes whether the results obtained meet all of the requirements of the research method. For...
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...UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN ACCOUNTING: A GUIDE FOR STUDENTS Teresa P. Gordon College of Business and Economics University of Idaho Moscow, Idaho USA Jason C. Porter College of Business and Economics University of Idaho Moscow, Idaho USA ABSTRACT The ability to read and understand academic research can be an important tool for practitioners in an increasingly complex accounting and business environment. This guide was developed to introduce students to the world of academic research. It is not intended for PhD students or others who wish to perform academic research. Instead, the guide should make published academic research more accessible and less intimidating so that future practitioners will be able to read empirical research and profitably apply the relevant findings. The guide begins by examining the importance of academic research for practitioners in accounting and next reviews the basics of the research process. With that background in place, we then give some guidelines and helpful hints for reading and evaluating academic papers. This guide has been used for several years to introduce master’s degree students to academic literature in an accounting theory class. After reading this guide and seeing a demonstration presentation by the professor, students have been able to successfully read and discuss research findings. Key words: Understanding empirical research, supplemental readings, importance of academic research, incorporating academic research in classroom...
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...the picture of any questionnaire the findings can create profound negative impact. The most frequent and important ways of misconduct in scientific research are falsifying results, plagiarize and over-interpretation. Motives are prestige, money, pressure of time and conflict of interests. The "publish or perish" phenomenon and the sometimes difficult attainable deadlines play an important role. Furthermore, there is a "gray-zone" in which clinical scientific researchers are influenced particularly by the pharmaceutical industry, leading to the writing of tendentious publications. (Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg. 2004). Over the last 25 years, a small but growing body of research on research behavior has slowly provided a more complete and critical understanding of research practices, particularly in the biomedical and behavioral sciences. The results of this research suggest that some earlier assumptions about irresponsible conduct are not reliable, leading to the conclusion that there is a need to change the way we think about and regulate research behavior. This paper begins with suggestions and support for more precise definitions of the terms “responsible conduct of research,” “research ethics,” and “research integrity.” It then summarizes the findings presented in some of the more important studies of research behavior, looking first at levels of occurrence...
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...Validity Significantly different still closely related loyalty is known as validity. In game design validity is the correspondence between game world and real world. The approach I took was to review the article of threats to the validity of research by Parker, 1993. According to Parker, 1993, I define four type of validity. Which are internal validity, external validity, statistical conclusion validity and construct validity. To organize thoughts of paper, I would like to extend my point of view on validity I game design. By passing facts origins helps the community to find the truth in research. By collecting data and have the evaluate them and make it a valid structure. Validity can be use in adopting usability to group settings where validity represent the data from reality to meaning. For the design of games the distinction between internal and external validity have a slightly different meaning. Internal validity related to the content and how is it represented in the logic and structure of the game. Internal validity can be achieved by taking control some of the factors of a environment in a proper...
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...the key research concepts of reliability and validity as they relate to ethnography, and will discuss the importance of context to ethnographic inquiry. In the final part of the chapter, I shall highlight some of the 'central concerns of this topic by contrasting psychometry and ethnography, The chapter seeks to address the following questions: • - What do we mean by ethnography? • - What are the key principles guiding ethnographic research? • - How might one deal with threats to the reliability and validity of this type of research? • - Why is context important to ethnographic research? • - In what ways does ethnography contrast with psychometric research? • Definition: Ethnography involves the study of the culture/characteristics of a group to real-world rather than Laboratory settings. The researcher makes no act to isolate or manipulate the phenomena under investigation, and insight generalizations emerge from close contact with the data rather than from theory of language learning and use. it is a qualitative type of research. Ethnography is provided by LeCompte and Goetz (1982). They use ethnography shorthand term to encompass a range of qualitative methods including study research, field research, and anthropological research. LeCompte and Goetz argue that Ethnography is defined by the use of participant and non-participant observation, a focus on natural settings, use of the subjective views and belief systems of the participants in the research process to structure...
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...CHAPTER 1: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: ITS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS THE NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Educational Research: 1. is empirical 2. takes a variety of forms 3. should be valid 4. should be reliable 5. should be systematic Empirical - knowledge derived from research is based on data collected by the researcher The Systematic Process of Research 1. Identify the problem (and relevant related knowledge) 2. Review the information (via literature search) 3. Collect data (in an organized and controlled manner) 4. Analyze data (in a manner appropriate to the problem) 5. Draw conclusions (make generalizations based on results of analysis) The Validity of Educational Research Quantitative Research: Internal Validity - the extent to which research results can be accurately interpreted. External Validity - the extent to which research results can be generalized to populations and conditions. Internal validity is generally prerequisite to external validity. Qualitative Research: Truth Value/ Credibility - accurate representation of information from the researcher’s perspective and substantiating evidence) Comparability - the extent to which the characteristics of the research are described so that other researchers may use the results to extend knowledge. Translatability - the extent to which adequate theoretical constructs and research procedures are used so that other researchers can understand...
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...Scaling Study Scaling Study Understanding the complexities of developing a proper measurement process required a sample survey project. Analyzing the responses from the sample survey project “Financial Peace,” provided the information needed to assess the validity, reliability, and practicality of the survey. The most important factor in the development of a survey is the management question. This question is the predicament. Managers need answers to assist in resolving managerial problems or to provide guidance for a future trend. The sample survey stems from a management question, is there a market for financial peace management classes? Before examining the responses, the explanation of the survey development provides the foundation to the scaling study. What is measured? The development of the survey required understanding the difference between objects and properties. Variables studied in research are classified as an object or property. Objects include the concepts of ordinary experience, such as tangible items like furniture, laundry detergent, people, or automobiles (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 272). The properties of the objects are the characteristics, if we asked questions concerning a piece of furniture than the description of the furniture, such as color, height, and designs are the characteristics. A survey depends on different concepts but the quality depends on what measures are selected and how they fit the circumstance (Borland Jr., 2001). In the...
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...EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: ITS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS THE NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Educational Research: 1. is empirical 2. takes a variety of forms 3. should be valid 4. should be reliable 5. should be systematic Empirical - knowledge derived from research is based on data collected by the researcher The Systematic Process of Research 1. Identify the problem (and relevant related knowledge) 2. Review the information (via literature search) 3. Collect data (in an organized and controlled manner) 4. Analyze data (in a manner appropriate to the problem) 5. Draw conclusions (make generalizations based on results of analysis) The Validity of Educational Research Quantitative Research: Internal Validity - the extent to which research results can be accurately interpreted. External Validity - the extent to which research results can be generalized to populations and conditions. Internal validity is generally prerequisite to external validity. Qualitative Research: Truth Value/ Credibility - accurate representation of information from the researcher’s perspective and substantiating evidence) Comparability - the extent to which the characteristics of the research are described so that other researchers may use the results to extend knowledge. Translatability - the extent to which adequate theoretical constructs and research procedures are used so that other researchers can understand the results. ! Validity is always...
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...Business Research Methods III QNT/TM561 Research and Statistics for Process Control May 30, 2011 Professor Alfred Siu Over the past several weeks the teams have researched and analyze Riordan Manufacturing. In the final analysis the appointed team members will discuss the statistical analysis of the data that has been collected, analyze how management will apply Six Sigma methodology. Other areas that will be discussed are challenges to the validity and reliability of the team’s research, classifying the findings, and discuss how the analysis may be used to innovate the business process. Discuss the statistical analysis of the data you collected. The statistical analysis from the data Riordan Manufacturing provide shows that the raw materials receiving processes has several flaws. Each quarter process shows three out of the seven tasks performed holds 10 to 15% of the whole processing timeframe. The variance from turnaround time has increased and stayed in double figures in each quarter. By focusing on the data gathering for the speed and accuracy from the raw materials receiving processes information, management should be able to determine the areas that needs most attention and which business management strategy methodology that can be used to correct the issues. Analyze how you would apply Six Sigma, Baldrige, or ISO to the issues the organization is facing with one of their processes. One of the problems...
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...Ways to Rock The Prepping you for the FCAT. Prepping you for the FCAT. L/A!!!!! Table of Contents Chapter 1-Reference and Research/Reliability/Validity/Synthesizing Page 1-2. Reference * What is Reference ? * Why is Reference important? * Think about it. Page 3-4. Research * What is Research? * Why is Research important? * Think about it. Page 5-6. Reliability * What is Reliability? * Why is Reliability important? * Think about it. Page 7-8. Validity * What is Validity? * Why is Validity important? * Think about it. Page 9-10. Synthesizing * What is Synthesizing? * Why is Synthesizing important? * Think about it. Table of Contents Chapter 3-Context Clue/Inference Page 1-2. Context clue * What is Reference? * Why is Reference important? * Think about...
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...Understanding the Doctoral Research Process Julia Coy-Ybarra Northcentral University November 24, 2013 Understanding the Doctoral Research Process An obvious factor in understanding the doctoral research process is having chosen the right academy to pursue the doctorate. Other deciding factor are the reference resources that are easily accessible to the student—a Writing Center and a Library database. The ultimate decision is choosing the right specialization program. Once these are done, what follows are organization, commitment, and dedication to the doctoral process. Introduction Following university standards is the threshold to acquiring a doctorate. Hence, these standards are the Academic Integrity Guidelines, APA writing standards, understanding the function of the School of Education, and the online function of your Academic Advisor. An online commitment to pursue a Doctorate is a very solitary commitment. The process will fail to provide any personal face-to-face interaction between student and mentor, between student and advisor, bantering with colleagues, or befriending the Dean of the School in any way but grades. Consequently, the student must make a commitment and prepare for this singular or introverted activity. The Research Process Nevertheless, in order to fully understanding the research process of the doctoral process, one needs to select a topic that...
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...S08 Psychology of Personality Lesson 8 Employers use personality tests in the interviewing process to try to select the best person for the job among many candidates. Companies have to determine if it is more cost effective to give personality tests before they hire a candidate or if they can afford the risk of possible employee turn-over. The techniques that are used by each company help to determine whether or not a particular candidate fits the job description and whether or not the candidate will succeed. Following the directions of the personality test, keeping the results private while not invading personal privacy makes personality tests as part of the interviewing process ethical and meaningful. There are several types of tests that an employer can use to test a candidates personality. They range from self-assessment questionnaires to more structured and measureable tests like computer adaptive tests. Each test has its own strengths and theoretical background, and employer’s need to find a test that works best for their company. Employers use personality profiles so that they can choose a candidate with the right personality traits to fill the position. Knowing that you need a self-motivated or persistent person is very important when asking questions during an interview. The more specific the questions that the employer asks the more accurate the answers will be about that candidates’ true personality. Since a person’s personality doesn’t generally...
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...Unit 17: Marketing Intelligence Buyer Behaviour and Market Research Techniques This assignment is going to be looking at understanding buyer behaviour and the purchase decision making process. It will cover describing the main stages of the process, along with explaining theories of buyer behaviour and factors that may affect this. Finally it will evaluate the relationship between brand loyalties, corporate image and repeat purchasing. Being able to use marketing research techniques will also be included within this essay; evaluating different types of market research, using sources of secondary data to achieve marketing research objectives and assessing the validity and reliability of these findings. All of the above topics will conclude with a proposal of a market research plan to obtain information in any given situation. LO1: Buyer Behaviour Figure 1.1a: http://www.enotesmba.com/2014/06/marketing-notes-consumer-decision-making-process.html (Accessed: 23rd Nov 15) Figure 1.1a: http://www.enotesmba.com/2014/06/marketing-notes-consumer-decision-making-process.html (Accessed: 23rd Nov 15) Engel, Blackwell and Kollat (1968) developed a model of the consumer buying, decision making process in five steps (see figure 1.1a): Problem or need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives to meet this need, purchase decision and post-purchase behaviour. They believed that these five stages displayed what led a shopper to purchase a new product (http://theconsumerfactor...
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...Quantitative marketing research is the application of quantitative research techniques to the field of marketing. It has roots in both the positivist view of the world, and the modern marketing viewpoint that marketing is an interactive process in which both the buyer and seller reach a satisfying agreement on the "four Ps" of marketing: Product, Price, Place (location) and Promotion. As a social research method, it typically involves the construction of questionnaires and scales. People who respond (respondents) are asked to complete the survey. Marketers use the information so obtained to understand the needs of individuals in the marketplace, and to create strategies and marketing plans. Contents [hide] • 1 Scope and requirements • 2 Typical general procedure • 3 Statistical analysis o 3.1 Reliability and validity o 3.2 Types of errors • 4 See also • 5 List of related topics • 6 References [edit] Scope and requirements This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (July 2010) [edit] Typical general procedure Simply, there are five major and important steps involved in the research process: 1. Defining the Problem. 2. Research Design. 3. Data Collection. 4. Analysis. 5. Report Writing & presentation. A brief discussion on these steps is: 1. Problem audit and problem definition - What is the problem? What are the various aspects of the problem? What information is needed? 2. Conceptualization and operationalization - How exactly do we define...
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