“The Roman army stands as a military institution without parallel in the history of the world” . The Roman Army was considered the most advanced of its time. It created the Roman Empire - a huge part of Western Europe – and Rome itself greatly benefited from the riches that the army brought back from its conquered territories. But one must ask why such an army was able to convincingly conquer the world for so long? The answer is multi-faceted, the success of the Roman Army was not due to one entity or feature that gave it overwhelming power, rather, the cause was due to a well-cohered military structure. The aspects that will be raised in this paper are the army’s training and technology, and the Roman soldier. Nonetheless, if there were to be one cause to the success of this army for more than 400 years it would arguably be the degree of organization. This notion will be highlighted and explained throughout the paper.

The Roman Army developed fighting techniques that were linked to a ferocious training regime; this is a significant reason as to why they were able to defeat all the forces that the world had to offer at the time. All new recruits to the army became very fit and disciplined. Training was harsh, as were punishments for failure. In a battle, new recruits were always placed at the front of the more experienced soldiers in the army . There were three reasons for this. The first was to give them confidence as behind them were experienced soldiers who had fought in battles before. Secondly, it stopped the new soldiers running away if their courage deserted them. The success from battles can be due to a factor highlighted by Vegetius: Before any engagement with the enemy it is necessary for the troops to be rested and adequately fed so that they are ready for the rigors of the day. The men must also be of good heart and instilled with a rage against the foe by exhortation.

Those who were more likely to be killed in the initial phase of a battle were at the front . The hardened and experienced legionnaires were at the rear. The Roman Army could ill afford to lose experienced legionnaires whereas if a new legionnaire came through a battle alive, he would be blooded and experienced and a valuable addition to the army . If he were killed, then the loss of his inexperience would not be too great.

There are several things we must note with the military dimensions of the Roman Army. One thing is that every little thing that contributed to battle was well thought off and planned out. The Roman’s did not leave things to chance, as Adcock puts, ‘The Romans did not in general admire war; still less did they romanticize it: but they understood it’ . And they knew that victory came long before the battle, the battle was won in the training of their men and the organization of their army, this can be seen the columns of Trajan.

The Roman Army is made up of legions that had between 4,000 and 6,000 men, which varied during different times of the Empire . The legion consisted of Roman citizens who joined freely on their accord; however the empire created benefits for the soldiers therefore effectively modifying the status as a profession. In the Roman Empire, a legionary served in the army for 25 years, so he could make his fortune. The leader of a legion was called a legatus and his officers were called tribuni . A legion is made up of heavily armored infantry (foot soldiers) who were a well-trained and feared force. They were equipped with two pilums (javelins) and a gladius (sword). The Cavalry given supplies by the auxiliaries (the second line of troops/part time soldiers) and was made up of mainly units of 500 people .

Furthermore, to assist the legionnaires were the auxiliaries. These men were often recruited from an area that the Romans were trying to conquer and occupy. They were not fully trained soldiers and their usual task was not to fight when the legionnaires attacked, but to assist them by acting as scouts or archers who would fire at the enemy while the legionnaires attacked. Those auxiliaries who fought on foot would be used to attack an enemy position before the legionnaires did – in this way; an enemy position would be softened up before the main assault .

The Roman Army was officially divided into two sections. The Comitatensis (the mobile fighting force) and the Limitanei (the troops that guarded the frontier). This worked until the end of the Western Roman Empire. The idea of this kind of army was so that it could get from place to place easily and take care of trouble quickly, thus quashing any potential turmoil before it could escalate. Foes of the empire found this difficult to overcome. Thus, displays that the Roman’s thought long term, they built their army so that it could sustain an expanding empire.

The Romans used a tried and tested attacking technique. Legionnaires would run forward at the enemy and throw their pilums at them. While this caused disarray among the enemy, the legionnaires would move in for close quarter fighting using their gladius. Each attack was the result of meticulous planning and practice – hence why they were usually so successful.

The Roman Army had the best engineers whom thought and made all the Romans’ Weapons. They designed weaponry that both gave some protection to the men but also were designed to smash into fortifications . Battering rams and siege towers were used for this – the latter allowed the Romans to gain access to a fort by effectively removing the problem of a high wall. The Battering Rams were a wheeled “hut” that hung on ropes. The Battering Ram was a “hut” because the protection allowed the men to knock down the walls with out being hurt. Huts similar to the Battering Rams these huts were arranged to be like a tunnel so after they knock down a wall they can go in without being harmed by archers or other things . The Legionaries who had to brave showers of enemy arrows, spears, or stones during the final assault for more than a few seconds were ordered into the “tortoise” formation. The Soldiers held their shields above their heads making an interlocking roof. The men at the edges of the formation made “walls” with their shields. This moving “block” protected the legionaries until they were close enough to open out again into fighting units. The Siege Towers had space for archers and small catapults, giving the men covering fire.

In battles the Roman legionary had catapults that threw stones or heavy arrows. Each legion had 60 catapults. The catapults sizes ranged from small machines that were carried on Mule-carts to massive Siege Catapults the size of cranes . The small catapults threw stones about the size of an orange or it threw heavy arrows with wooden “feathers.” These catapults were surprisingly accurate and could hit a guy at about 180 yd. (165m) When the enemy was clumped together the catapult could fire with accuracy about 480yd. (440m) The huge Siege Catapults threw stones weighing about 100lb (45 kg) to knock down the city walls.

All of this required scrupulous training on behalf of the Roman Soldier and one of the most important people involved here were the centurions . Each centurion was required to ensure that his century was a capable and effective fighting force. Any century that did not perform well in battle might pay the price and be decimated. The unit would stand in line and every tenth man would be taken out and killed. This was known as decimus by the Romans. This punishment served as a stark warning to other units and to those who had survived in the century being punished.

The marching legionary wore full armor but unless the enemy was nearby the soldier carried his helmet and shield hung by straps. Over his shoulder he carried his two Javelins, as well as a T-shaped pole on which he tied his personal gear and belongings. Not only did the army organize the legion they also made sure what they ate was up to standard. On the march the food was most likely plain: Grain for making hard biscuit-bread, vegetables like onions and dried beans, which kept for a long time and maybe a little dried fish or meat . The staple diet containing carbohydrates, protein, fiber and many more nutrients sustained the soldier throughout the day. To move the legions quickly the army constructed an excellent network of straight, stone paved roads linking towns and castles. In hostile territory the column of men were arranged for the march in a special way. The cavalry guarded the flanks from an ambush; and commanders, baggage and heavy equipment were placed in the middle of the legion, guarded by the fighting units in the front and back. When the army was in enemy territory, the soldiers had up to three weeks food. For any threat that could possibly come about the Romans had taken precautionary measures to defend themselves. They organised to the very last detail

In the country where there was the slightest risk of attack the legionary had to help make an entrenched camp at the end of a days march. Surveyors traveled ahead of the legionary to choose a good campsite before the troops arrived. The surveyors laid out the plan of the site with pegs and flags. A surprise night attack was always dangerous. But this simple precaution cut down the chance of the camp being taken over . Again, organization – the element of military warfare that the roman army never neglected, rather always resorted to. Even at rest the enemy had little chance to defeat the legion, simply because the Romans expected and therefore prepared for this.

The Romans ruled Europe for more than 400 hundred years. The success of the Roman army was due to the organizational measures that the legions undertook. It was a solution that could solve any problem that presented it self in times of war and peace. However it is ironic, at the peak of its power, which ran for quite some time, the Roman army still performed the major tasks of organizing its weapons, tactics, soldiers and many more. Even though it was clear that no enemy was left and if there was, they would not dare take on the Roman army, still they underwent these rigorous tasks. Why? Well the irony strikes when one sees that fall of the empire was not due to an outside force, rather, the instability of power that had spread throughout the empire. Perhaps, the Roman army was so busy defending the empire from the world, when really, the greatest threat lay within their walls.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• J.B. Campbell, The Roman Army 31 BC-AD337; a sourcebook, London/New York 1994
• I.A. Richmond, “Trajan’s Army on Trajan’s column” in Papers of the British School at Rome, 1935
• E.Birley, Housesteads Roman Fort, London 1952