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Critical Theory

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Tugas Review untuk Mata Kuliah Teori Hubungan Interansional II
Nama : Rista Sanjaya
NPM : 1006694555
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Sumber: Catherine Eschle, “Constructing ‘The Antiglobalisation Movement’,” dalam Eschle dan Maiguashca, eds., Critical Theories, International Relations and ‘the Anti-Globalisation Movement’, (New York: Routledge, 2005), hlm. 17-35.

Analisis Perbandingan Critical Theory
Pada beberapa dekade terakhir, critical theory berkembang sebagai kritik konstruktif atas aspek-aspek hierarkhis dalam globalisasi seperti kapitalisme, kekuatan korporasi, dan sistem patriarki. Dalam review ini, penulis akan membahas critical theory dan menganalisis perbandingan critical theory dari tiga tokoh, Catherine Eshle, Jill Steans dan Lloyd Pettiford, serta Richard Devetak. Pada bagian awal review, penulis akan menjelaskan critical theory menurut pemikiran Catherine Eshcle. Kemudian, pada bagian berikutnya, pemikiran critical theory dari Jill Steans-Lloyd Pettiford dan Richard Devetak akan disajikan sebagai bahan pembanding. Pada bagian ketiga, penulis akan menyajikan analisis ketiga pemikiran tokoh mengenai critical theory. Pada bagian akhir, penulis akan menarik kesimpulan sebagai penutup review ini. Dalam tulisannya yang berjudul “Constructing ‘The Antiglobalisation Movement”, Catherine Eschle melihat critical theory sebagai sebuah pemikiran anti-globalisasi. Kemudian, Eschle menjelaskan bahwa konstruksi anti-globalisasi juga terwujud dalam bentuk gerakan sosial. Menurut Eschle, gerakan sosial anti-globalisasi tidak memiliki pengertian yang rigid, namun gerakan sosial memiliki sifat yang heterogen dan senantiasa berkembang. Eshcle melihat bahwa penggunaan kata gerakan sosial lebih mengacu pada Ilmu Sosiologi daripada Ilmu Hubungan Internasional. Oleh karena itu, Eschle membedakannya dengan menjelaskan gerakan sosial dalam hal ini lebih diartikan sebagai gerakan yang terletak pada ranah internasional daripada ranah domestik, dan lebih bersifat politis daripada sosial. Gerakan ini ditanamkan secara sosial dan menyebar dengan sistem jaringan yang lebih bersifat horizontal daripada sistem hierarkhis yang kaku serta memiliki indentitas budaya tersendiri. Gerakan ini memiliki fokus yang menentang pada neoliberalisme terglobalisasi, kekuatan korporasi, dan merepresentasikan aktivisme gerakan sosial sebagai anti-kapitalis atau mengkontruksi sistem alternatif dalam mengatur hubungan globalisasi. Eschle mengkonstruksi pengertian gerakan sosial dengan cara eklektisme atau mengambil dari beberapa aspek paradigma, seperti konstruktivisme dan feminisme. Mengambil dari aspek pemikiran konstruktivisme, gerakan anti-globalisasi ini memiliki identitas yang terus ditempa dan berkembang melalui proses komunikasi, negosiasi, dan pembuatan keputusan di antara partisipannya. Mengambil dari aspek pemikiran feminisme, gerakan anti-globalisasi ini secara intrinsik menentang entitas power yang hegemonis, bersifat emansipatoris, bebas dari pengaruh power, dan berbentuk global civil society.
Dalam mengkonstruksi pemikiran anti-globalisasi, Eschle melihat bahwa tujuan utama dari gerakan tersebut memiliki inti sebagai gerakan anti-kapitalisme yang mengakar dari ideologi Marxist. Selain itu, Eschle menggunakan istilah anarkhisme sebagai sifat dari gerakan anti-globalisasi tersebut. Hal ini dikarenakan gerakan tersebut bersifat aksi langsung dan civil disobedient, bersistem non-hierarkhis, terdesentralisasi, inklusif, konsensus, dan aktivitasnya berasal dari kedekatan atau afinitas antar-anggota. Selain itu, anarkhisme tergambar pada organisasi yang bersifat otonomis dan demokrasi partisipatoris, yang mengakar pada kepercayaan kebutuhan akan desentralisasi power dan pemindahan power.
Meskipun gerakan anti-globalisasi dapat dilihat sebagai gerakan yang berasal dari ideologi Marxisme, tapi Eschle kurang setuju dengan pernyataan tersebut. Eschle berargumen pada aspek ekonomisme. Telah diketahui bahwa ideologi Marxisme memiliki fokus pada aspek ekonomi yaitu pemikiran anti-kapitalisme. Akan tetapi, gerakan anti-globalisasi memiliki fokus yang luas dengan menentang segala sistem pada globalisasi yang dinilai buruk, tidak hanya nilai kapitalisme, tetapi juga nilai hierarkhi rasial dan gender yang lebih bersifat kultural.
Kemudian, Eschle juga menekankan pada konstruksi teori pada Ilmu Hubungan Internasional. Eschle menolak dan ingin mengubah sistem teori yang mensimplifikasi keberagaman yang ada dalam objek pengamatan sehingga menyebabkan suatu entitas umum menjadi lebih dominan terhadap hal lain yang khusus. Selain itu, perlu adanya sebuah investigasi terhadap teori akademis yang justru seolah melenggangkan kekuatan konstitutif bagi suatu ideologi, kelas, gender, nasionalitas, sumber daya sosial, dan diskriminasi media. Oleh karena itu, Eschle berargumen bahwa pemikir teori harus mengubah epistemologi hierarkhis yang selama ini ada dengan menambah entitas gerakan-gerakan sebagai sumber dari pengetahuan.
Menurut Richard Devetak dalam buku Theories of International Relations, dijelaskan bahwa critical theory atau teori kritis terbentuk untuk memandang lebih jauh dalam aspek sosial dan aspek politik dalam kehidupan melalui penggunaan metode yang kritis. Critical theory memiliki tujuan untuk memulihkan potensi emansipasi yang tertutup oleh tren intelektual, sosial, kultural, politik, ekonomi, dan teknologi. Akan tetapi, critical theory tidak hanya berusaha untuk semata-mata menghilangkan bentuk dominasi, tetapi juga mencoba untuk menganalisis struktur sosial yang menyebabkan dominasi sehingga teoris mampu menyelesaikan permasalahan pada sumbernya. Critical theorist melihat bahwa sebuah teori pengetahuan tidak dapat dapat dipisahkan dari nilai yang ada di dalam masyarakat sehingga critical theorist memandang bahwa teori pengetahuan yang ada memiliki kepentingan dan cenderung mencari tujuan tertentu seperti power, termasuk teori dalam Hubungan Internasional.
Critical theory mengkombinasikan tiga dimensi dalam dalam memahami dan mengkonstruksikan kejadian politik. Menurut Devetak, dimensi pertama dalam critical theory adalah dimensi normatif yang mengkritik bentuk partikularisme, ekslusi sosial, dan bentuk dominasi sosial. Dimensi kedua adalah dimensi sosiologis yang melihat terdapat hubungan antar-negara dan pembentukan struktur yang menciptakan world order sesuai dengan nilai dan norma yang terbentuk di dalam struktur tersebut. Dimensi ketiga adalah dimensi prakseologis yang memperhatikan kemungkinan adanya rekonstruksi dalam hubungan internasional yang lebih bersifat emansipatoris dan kosmopolitan. Secara keseluruhan, kontribusi utama critical theory pada Hubungan Internasional adalah memberikan fokus pada fondasi normatif dalam kehidupan politis.
Secara implisit, dalam pandangan Devetak, critical theory berusaha melihat kemungkinan perubahan world order yang lebih mengutamakan perubahan di dunia ke arah perbaikan dalam aspek kemanusiaan dan persamaan sosial. World order terbentuk karena adanya hubungan antar-negara yang membentuk karakter struktural dalam world order tersebut. World order memiliki konfigurasi tertentu dalam menentukan power dalam sistem negara dan sistem ekonomi dalam politik internasional. Bertolak dari hal tersebut, critical theorist berusaha menganalisis potensi transformasi struktural dalam world order sehingga tercipta bentuk-bentuk tekanan emansipatoris yang akan menandingi hegemoni. Sebagai contoh, tekanan tersebut dapat berupa gabungan negara-negara dunia ketiga yang berusaha melawan dominasi negara utama atau organisasi non-pemerintah secara global yang bergerak membawa aspirasi minoritas dan menolak kosep dominasi.
Menurut Jill Steans dan Lloyd Pettiford dalam buku mereka yang berjudul International Relations: Perspectives and Themes, menjelaskan bahwa critical theory merupakan pemikiran dalam Ilmu Hubungan Internasioal yang mulai berkembang pesat sejak pertengahan dekade 1980. Critical theory secara spesifik mengacu pada pemikiran intelektual yang berakar pada Marxisme. Akan tetapi, Steans-Pettiford menekankan perbedaan antara strukturalisme dan critical theory yang keduanya berasal dari pemikiran Marxisme. Perbedaan tersebut terletak pada fokus utama pemikiran, di mana strukturalisme lebih berfokus pada struktur dan sistem mekanis kapitalisme, sedangkan critical theory menekankan pada pentingnya budaya dan ideologi dalam hubungan sosial. Selain itu, critical theory menciptakan koneksitas antara teori dan praktik di mana mereka berusaha menciptakan dunia yang lebih baik sehingga teori tidak memiliki arti bila tidak diterapkan dalam aspek aktivitas manusia. Perbedaan lain antara critical theory dengan strukturalisme adalah sifat determinismenya, di mana critical theory tidak memiliki pandangan deterministik yang rigid dalam sistem ekonomi dan sosial karena adanya perubahan historis. Selain itu, critical theory tidak hanya menyoroti dominasi kapitalisme seperti dalam pandangan strukturalisme tetapi juga menyoroti permasalahan kelas sosial lainnya seperti masalah gender, etnis, ras, dan nasionalitas.
Steans-Pettiford menyatakan bahwa critical theory dapat dikatakan sebagai Marxisme terbuka atau humanisme Marxis. Steans-Pettiford menggunakan teori Marxisme dalam menjelaskan kemunculan dari critical theory. Hal ini diawali dengan adanya sistem kapitalisme yang bersifat eksploitatif terhadap kaum buruh, di mana buruh diperlakukan layaknya sebuah barang produksi yang menghasilkan keuntungan. Keuntungan tersebut disimpan secara akumulatif oleh kapitalis, sedangkan kaum buruh tidak mendapatkan tambahan keuntungan akumulatif. Hal ini menyebabkan kaum buruh tidak dilihat sebagai entitas fisik dan sosial yang penting di dalam kesejahteraan masyarakat, namun hanya dilihat sebagai input dalam proses produksi. Dalam pemikiran Marx, keadaan sistem kapitalisme yang demikian akan bersifat rapuh dan memiliki kecenderungan untuk runtuh. Hal ini disebabkan karena permasalahan yang disebabkan oleh sistem kapitalisme akan menciptakan kesadaran kolektif yang membawa pada sebuah gerakan sosial dan emansipasi. Jadi, pemikiran Marxisme tersebut seolah menjadi latar belakang bagaimana critical theory muncul.
Steans dan Pettiford menjelaskan lima asumsi dasar dari critical theory, yaitu pertama sifat manusia tidak rigid, tetapi dibentuk oleh kondisi sosial yang ada dalam suatu periode waktu. Kedua, masyarakat secara individual dapat dikelompokkan dalam kolektivitas yang memiliki kepentingan tertentu. Asumsi ketiga, tidak ada hal yang merepresentasikan fakta keadaan dunia. Yang ada hanyalah penjelasan tentang keadaan dunia berdasar nilai pengaruh intrpretasi masing-masing pemikiran. Keempat, secara langsung critical theory memiliki hubungan langsung dengan kepentingan manusia dalam bentuk emansipasi. Asumsi kelima, critical theory merupakan doktrin universal dan tidak bergantung pada perbedaan ras, etnisitas, gender, dan kelas.
Dalam kaitannya dengan negara dan power, Steans-Pettiford menjelaskan bahwa negara memiliki peran yang vital dalam mendukung eksistensi ekonomi kapitalis, termasuk penciptaan sistem hukum yang meregulasi kontrak antara individual dengan perusahaan dan regulasi polisi yang mengatur masyarakat. Selain itu, dalam pandangan Marxisme orthodox negara berusaha menjamin stabilitas dari adanya konflik termasuk konflik perjuangan kelas. Oleh karena itu, negara seolah melanggengkan kekuasaan kapitalis sebagai kelas penguasa, yang di sisi lain berguna bagi negara sebagai kontributor pertumbuhan ekonomi.
Analisis Penulis
Menurut analisis saya, ketiga pemikiran, baik Eschle, Devetak, maupun Steans-Pettiford memiliki persamaan yang mendasar dalam memaknai critical theory. Critical theory merupakan sebuah pendekatan pemikiran yang memiliki inti berupa tanggapan kritis atas sistem dominasi yang muncul seperti sistem kapitalisme dan dominasi entitas. Oleh karena itu, critical theorist berusaha untuk mengkontruksikan teori yang bersifat emansipatoris dengan cara mengubah sistem dominatif yang ada dengan sistem yang lebih adil. Akan tetapi, ketiga tokoh memiliki fokus yang cenderung berbeda dalam menganalisis dan mengkonstruksi critical theory. Sebagai contoh, Eschle menjelaskan critical theory digambarkan sebagai bentuk gerakan sosial anti-globalisasi secara praktis dan menjelaskan contoh aktual gerakan sosial tersebut seperti peristiwa Seattle dan gerakan Zapatista. Berbeda dengan Eschle yang menjelaskan secara praktis, dalam pemikiran Devetak dan Steans-Pettiford tidak digunakan konsep praktikal seperti gerakan sosial, akan tetapi lebih condong pada konsep teoretis yang bersifat historis dan normatif.
Saya melihat bahwa dalam kaitan dengan aspek penjelasan, seperti perdebatan penggunaan konsep ilmu Sosiologi, Eschle dan Devetak memiliki perbedaan yang cukup signifikan. Menurut Eschle, sebagai ilmuwan Ilmu Hubungan Internasional, pendekatan yang diambil dalam menjelaskan critical theory harus sebisa mungkin menjauhi penggunaan konsep Sosiologi karena ilmu Sosiologi dan Hubungan Internasional memiliki perbedaan yang mendasar. Oleh karena itu, Eschle dalam menjelaskan konsep gerakan sosial, tidak menggunakan konsep sosiologis, yakni gerakan sosial yang dimaksud lebih bersifat global dan politis, bukan bersifat domestik dan sosial. Berbeda dengan Eschle, Devetak justru menjelaskan salah satu dimensi critical theory dalam aspek sosiologis, seperti konsep tatanan sosial, tekanan sosial, dan hubungan sosial yang dijelaskan dengan pendekatan ilmu Sosiologi.
Selain itu, saya melihat terdapat perbedaan antara ketiga tokoh pemikiran critical theory, dalam menjelaskan kemunculan critical theory. Eschle menjelaskan bahwa latar belakang munculnya critical theory, adalah terjadinya homogenisasi model secara global melalui media globalisasi, seperti homogenisasi sistem ekonomi kapitalis, homogenisasi efek atas kebijakan negara, serta homogenisasi budaya. Homogenisasi tersebut menyebabkan dominasi atas sistem yang ada dengan sistem lainnya yang berbeda. Oleh karena itu, critical theory menjawab permasalahan yang muncul akibat dari pengaruh buruk globalisasi tersebut. Devetak menggunakan latar belakang ketidakadilan yang terjadi di berbagai bidang seperti politik, ekonomi, sosial, budaya, tren, dan teknologi. Ketidakadilan tersebut menyebabkan munculnya kritik emansipatoris yang kini berkembang sebagai critical theory. Berbeda dengan Eshcle dan Devetak, latar belakang munculnya critical theory menurut Steans-Pettiford mengadopsi pemikiran Marxisme, di mana sistem kapitalis menyebabkan kesenjangan kelas sosial yang berakhir pada gerakan perjuangan kelas.
Kemudian, menurut analisis saya, terdapat hal yang unik dari pendekatan yang diambil oleh Eschle untuk menjelaskan critical theory, yang berbeda dari pemikiran critical theory lainnya. Eschle menggunakan cara eklektisme dalam mengkonstruksi pemikiran critical theory, yaitu dengan cara mengambil poin aspek dari pendekatan lainnya, seperti konstruktivisme dan feminisme. Menurut Eschle, critical theory yang digambarkannya sebagai gerakan anti-globalisasi tersebut bersifat konstruktif, di mana gerakan tersebut terus berkembang sesuai dengan proses komunikasi, negosiasi, dan pembuatan keputusan. Sehingga, identitas dari gerakan tersebut terus ditempa sesuai dengan proses yang terjadi. Selain itu, critical theory dan gerakan anti-globalisasi juga dijelaskan dalam aspek feminisme, seperti konsep dominasi dan hegemoni yang dapat terjadi dalam skala kecil seperti hubungan antar individu atau intim. Berbeda dengan Eschle, pemikiran critical theory dari penjelasan Devetak dan Steans-Pettiford masih bersifat bersifat mandiri tanpa menginterseksi pendekatan teori lain dalam mengkonstruksi critical theory.
Menurut analisis saya, terdapat perbedaan dalam kaitan dengan prinsip Marxisme antara ketiga tokoh pemikiran, yaitu Eschle, Devetak, dan Steans-Pettiford. Steans-Pettiford cenderung menggunakan prinsip Marxisme sebagai penjelasan dalam critical theory, seperti dalam menerangkan kemunculan critical theory. Menurut Steans-Pettiford, kemunculan critical theory sesuai dengan skenario Marx di mana sistem kapitalis akan menciptakan kesenjangan kelas sosial antara kapitalis dengan buruh, sehingga menyebabkan perjuangan kelas yang menuntut emansipasi. Berdasarkan prinsip Marxisme itu, critical theory muncul. Berbeda dengan Steans-Pettiford, Devetak justru cenderung tidak menggunakan prinsip Marxisme secara dasar seperti yang dijelaskan oleh Steans-Pettiford. Sedangkan Eschle, seolah berada di antara Steans-Pettiford dan Devetak dalam penggunaan prinsip Marxisme. Eschle memang menggunakan pendekatan Marxisme dalam menjelaskan latar belakang adanya critical theory dan gerakan sosial anti-globalisasi. Akan tetapi, Eschle menekankan bahwa ia tidak sepenuhnya sepakat dengan konsep dalam Marxisme. Menurut Eschle critical theory tidak hanya dibangun atas aspek ekonomi saja, seperti sistem kapitalisme tetapi juga menggunakan sistem budaya dan identitas yag tidak dijelaskan dalam Marxisme.
Jadi, berdasarkan pembahasan isi review, dapat disimpulkan bahwa critical theory merupakan sebuah pendekatan pemikiran yang memiliki inti berupa tanggapan kritis atas sistem dominasi yang muncul seperti sistem kapitalisme dan dominasi entitas. Critical theory memiliki dimensi yang tidak hanya bersifat teoretis saja, tetapi juga memiliki dimensi normatif dan prakseologis. Terdapat perbedaan antara penulis pemikiran critical theory dalam menjelaskan dan mengkonstruksi critical theory, seperti dalam aspek fokus pemikiran, latar belakang kemunculan, penggunaan aspek sosiologis dan prinsip Marxisme. Akan tetapi, perbedaan dalam pemikiran critical theory tersebut bukanlah sebuah hal yang buruk namun dilihat sebagai upaya untuk mengkonstruksikan critical theory menjadi lebih baik.

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[ 1 ]. Catherine Eschle, “Constructing ‘The Antiglobalisation Movement’,” dalam Eschle dan Maiguashca, eds., Critical Theories, International Relations and ‘the Anti-Globalisation Movement’, (New York: Routledge, 2005), hlm. 17.
[ 2 ]. Ibid.
[ 3 ]. Ibid., hlm. 23.
[ 4 ]. Ibid., hlm. 25.
[ 5 ]. Richard Devetak, “Critical Theory,” dalam S. Burchill, et al., eds.,Theories of International Relations, (4th ed., New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), hlm. 160.
[ 6 ]. Ibid., hlm. 177.
[ 7 ]. Ibid., hlm. 175.
[ 8 ]. Jill Steans dan Lloyd Pettiford, International Relations, (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2001) hlm. 103.
[ 9 ]. Ibid., hlm. 111.
[ 10 ]. Eschle, op.cit., hlm. 27.
[ 11 ]. Ibid., hlm. 28.

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...The movies I have chosen to study are Crash and Boyz-n-the Hood. In both these films I had found numerous forms of the critical race theory in the form of the essentialism philosophy. Essentialism philosophy is the reducing of the experience of a category, gender or race, to the experience of one sub-group . Basically, all oppressed people share the commonality of oppression. However, that oppression varies by gender, class, race, etc., so the aims and strategies will differ for each of these groups. I chose these films because of this portion of the critical race theory. Its interesting how no matter what race or gender one is, they could still be facing some sort of the same oppression. These films are also very representative of both the past and present day California. Situations in both films can be seen directly around us. Crash takes aim at a wide range of essentialism philosophy in that it deals with a string of different situations and racial prejudices. It ranges from typical white on black racism, to more strange indian on mexican stereotyping. Throughout the film we can see how everyday situations had become racial prejudices. In the movie Boyz-N-the Hood it is mostly directed towards black racism, but it is interesting because a good number of the racism is done by blacks on blacks. This was very interesting to me. At the time when this film was made, essentialism philosophy of the CRT was very prominent in the LA area, especially with the gangs. One...

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...Organisational Theory Assignment Baruch Spinoza once said, “The highest activity a human can attain is learning for understanding, because to understand is to be free”. Spinoza quoting that understanding leads to freedom – emancipation – can be interpreted as a statement from the perspective of a critical theorist (Green 2004) and if left unchallenged this statement would prove absolute. However, using a modernist perspective it can be argued that understanding would lead to quantification (Hatch, 2006) that could in turn, lead to greater efficiency. Solely from referencing the two theories above and the 2 ways of looking at a single statement we can ascertain that a combination of perspectives gives us a greater understanding than a single perspective. This essay explores how using a multi perspective approach would provide the individual with a more comprehensive and well ronded understanding to organisations, an increased capacity to understand how to better embrace structure and its implications and the holistic simplification and explaination of cultural effects. It also brings to light the conflicting nature of these theories and its inherant biasness. The first advantage of using a multi-perspective approach to understanding an organisation would be that it provides us with a more comprehensive and well-rounded understanding to organisations. This greater understanding begins with the internalisation of the different perspective’s ontology and epistemology...

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Organisation Theory

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A Glossary of Postmodern Terms

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