Geo 113
Term- paper
Introduction
The topic I chose to do is migration. Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. There are four main types of migration permanent, temporary, voluntary or forced and they can be internal or international. Internal means going from your country to another within the same region and international means to from one country to another. There are various reasons why people migrate and migration has to do a lot with push and pull factors. Push factors are those which force a person to move. This can include drought, famine, lack of jobs, over population and civil war. Pull factors are those which encourage a person to move. These include a chance of a better job, better education and a better standard of living. In my article reviews I will reveal some of the reasons for migration. Since migration occurs all over the world I decided to go beyond the beautiful tranquil waters of The Bahamas into the regions of South Africa and China. I selected two out four articles which are related Africa and the other two on China these are all based on some form of migration. My first article is entitle Migration and Elderly Africans in the United States and this speaks distinctively on Immigration migration. The second article entitle The socio-economic impact of African immigration on urban development in South Africa: the case of Empangeni this speaks distinctively on African immigration in South Africa. My third article entitle Rural-urban migration and urbanization in Gansu Province, China: Evidence of time-series Analysis speaks distinctively on Rural Urban migration and urbanization. Lastly, the article entile Critical Evaluation of the New Rural-Urban Labour Mobility in China: Reasons and Effect of Rural-Urban Labour Migration on Urban and Rural Labour Market speak distinctively on rural urban labour migration. Two things my articles have in common are that they all take place in rural areas, and they talk about migration as a method of escape from these rural places.

Article One
The topic of my article is Migration and Elderly Africans in the United States. The authors of the article include Michael U. Mbanaso and Sandra E. Crewe. The main topic of the article is Immigration Migration. The main purpose is the article gives a literature replete with explanations for reasons why Elderly Africans migrate to the United States. It gives a distinctive phenomenon of the trend of the increasing number of elderly Africans joining the ranks of immigrants in the United States. It provides details on the purpose for the migration of elderly Africans using push and pull factors. It also addresses the unique experience of African born elders as they age in the United States. Implications for migration policy and practice, migration patterns, globalization and migration, regional conflicts and emerging trends were all discussed in this article.
In this article the authors provided explanations why the elderly Africans migrate to the United States. The main conclusion looked at the reason for elderly migration to the United States are for various push and pull factors. A pull factor is what draws the elderly Africans to a new location. The pull factors are voluntary by the elderly Africans to migrate to the United States and some of the pull factors include education, better economic opportunities and family unification. The push factor is a force which acts to drive the elderly Africans away from Africa. Some of these push factors include political turmoil, religious conflicts and ethnic conflict.
Education is a pull factor. The article states that from the 1970’s to the mid-twentieth century, North America and Western Europe were the destinations of choice for most Africans who sought to advance their studies in higher education. For instance, the United States of America, Canada, Britain, Germany, France, and the Scandinavian countries served as hosts for students from Africa who flocked to these nations’ institutions of higher learning. The common trend is that they stay extended in order to advance their degree which then enables them to gain employment. Thus admission category would eventually transform from student non-immigrant visas to one of lawful permanent residence in the United States to finally U.S citizen. Better economic opportunity is another pull factor. The article states that the migration patterns have been within and across national borders. Rural urban migration continues to be a fixture across Africa as most of these regions undergo transformations from predominantly rural societies to urbanized societies. Africans uproot themselves from rural areas and resettle in urban areas (cities). It is a better and easier to find available jobs in order to provide for their family.
Family unification is the last pull factor mentioned. The article states that the migration of elderly Africans is increasing because they reunite with their children and grand children who have already receive citizenship in the country.
In addition to the pull factors there are also some push factors. One of the push factors is political turmoil and according to the article, there are three main factors for this political turmoil. Firstly, In South Africa, for example, Blacks and their allies were battling the White-dominated racist apartheid regime for full citizenship for a democratic South Africa. Secondly, In Namibia the West People’s organization was fighting South African occupation for independence. Lastly, Nigeria was among the worst example of what had gone utterly wrong in Africa, with its endless and successive military coups of corrupt and repressive regime.
The other push factor is Religious conflicts. Religious conflicts have been on the rise because of the imposition of Sharia legal code based on rigid Islamic law in regions where Islam is dominant. The affected region included North Africa and other Islam-dominated Africa regions.
The last push factor mentioned was the Ethnic conflict. The article states that “In its annual dossier of country reports of human rights, the U.S Department of State provides a snapshot of country conditions across the globe, including countries in Africa.” Reports of extra –judicial killing abound the politically motivated abductions, torture, arbitrary arrest, detention and imprisonment are routine.
According to Migration and Elderly Africans in the United States “leaving one’s home is difficult for most people, regardless of the circumstance.” Both voluntary and involuntary uprooting can affect the quality of life of older persons and their families. Service providers often encounter the challenges associated with uprooting older family members from their home or community and in some cases, their nation. This article addresses the unique experience of African-born Elders as they age in the United States. The literature is replete with explanations for reasons why people migrate but specifically looks at the elderly African migrants to the United States. The economic push and pull factors are some reasons; income disparities between regions and material considerations are prime importance in the decision to migrate or not to migrate. Decolonization was accompanied with a rise in urban wages along with employment opportunities as colonial governments retreated. Migration patterns were another aspect mentioned and it has been across national borders. Rural urban migration continues to be a fixture across Africa. They migrate from rural to urban cities in the United States. Additionally, the article states how there are categories of elderly African immigrants whose migration was triggered by political turmoil and conflict; the need for family unification with children and grand children seeking better opportunities.
I felt this article was very informative. Based on the facts provided in this article, I do believe there are a lot of migrating Africans in the United States. A reason why persons migrate is for a better way of life. In this article it is for higher education and I agree because education is important. Some reasons why education is important is because it enables you to get a higher paying job which allows you to be more financially secure, teaches you how to handle responsibility and gives you the necessary tools to think for yourself. It also exposes you to more of your peers allowing you to see and experience diversity and different points of view, helps you realize your potential, which allows you to empower yourself to do more than you thought you could do before. In the process of getting an education, you make new friends, and these friendships could last a lifetime, gives you a better, more developed understanding of the world and current events, opens up the possibility of more job opportunities, allows you to learn the mistakes of those who came before you, so that you do not repeat the same mistakes, learn time management skills. School teaches you that every bad action made has a discipline which goes with it, develops social skills for interacting with people you do not normally interact with and teaches you organizational skills which will one day come in handy.
Additionally, there are a lot of conflicts that Africans are trying to escape from. The article used religious as one of them. I agree with both of them because religion is a controversial issue in world affairs. Religion is also often being blamed as a tool to mobilize people during conflicts. In many parts of the world people from different religions live in peace and coexist without any conflicts. The weakness of this article is that the authors could have elaborated more on the better opportunities the elderly Africans can have. The article only stated jobs but not the type of jobs. The unification of family was a strong point because it is one of the main ways and reason elderly Africans migrate to the United States.

Article Two
The topic of this article was The Socio-economic impact of African immigration on urban development in South Africa: the case of Empangeni. The authors include Efe Mary Isike. The main topic is the examination of the patterns and nature of African immigration to South Africa. The purpose of this article is simply to give a detailed account on migration in South Africa (internal migration). It also answered a few questions in the process of finding out the intentions of migration and the necessity of a sustainable government. This is done so that they could find out the main reason or reasons for migration as well as the cause and effects of migration in Africa to help them answer their migration discussion of Empangeni. Conceptual and theoretical perspectives are used from one group consisting of sixteen different African immigrants of different professions from different parts of Africa. The second group consist of seven South Africans mainly postgraduate students, government employees and private business owners. The main conclusion of the article is that the impact of migration is two faced and has positive and negative effects on development. The awareness of migration is not large in South Africa but there needs to be a policy that is aimed to attract skilled immigrants in order to encourage skilled immigrants to South Africa in order to help its development.
The evidence the author provides for the main conclusion is that it tells us that South Africa has not fully maximised its potential benefits of the immigrants because of immigration laws that discourage migrants from taking up jobs. It also explains how Africa would possibly be able to benefit from African immigration, which would be by ensuring that staff and officials are trained well enough in order to implement immigration legislation effectively. A sub conclusion of the article states, “There is no single reason factor explanation of why people migrate. Rather, there are several interdependent factors involved ranging from the economic, socio-cultural, political to the demographic, and they are linked in a complex web.”
Migration is an age long phenomenon which has always taken place long before territorial borders became visibly defined. Amongst the world’s regions, Europe, North America and western Asia have the highest migrant populations, but there has been an increasingly dynamic movement across the borders to the global south known as south-south migration. Since 1994 South Africa has become the new Europe in Africa because it is known to the African immigrants as the next best destination point for immigration. Taking a peek into the history of the country, the nature and patterns of immigration have always been changing. Before the discovery of diamonds and gold in the late 19th century there was an established system of labour migration in the region. After the discovery of diamonds and gold, patterns of migration changed when Kimberly mines opened with a whole new economy. Migration became regulated by the employment of a Bureau of Africa called the (TEBA) .This was for the large influx from neighbouring countries. According to the international Organization of migration (IOM) “there is a two way positive and negative connection between migration and development.” There are a range of theories that seek to explain why migration remains ongoing and one of them is the push and pull factors. A push factor is when migration is motivated by the disadvantages and difficulties experienced in the country of origin. The pull factors are when the country of destination benefits attracts migrants. The article states that people also migrate for different reasons because migration is so dynamic and cannot be determined by a fixed rule to justify its motivation causing migration to go beyond push or pull factors. Therefore, it says that push or pull factors are just too restrictive and inadequate enough for an explanation of migration trends.
Migration trends and patterns between the different countries and South Africa are mediated by a complex web of social, economic, political and demographic contexts as well as historical, colonial and cultural linkages between countries. The impact of migration has been two faced; having had a positive and negative effect on development. South Africa has not fully maximised the potential benefits of these immigrants due to immigration laws that discourages migrants from taking up jobs, and xenophobic attacks due to lack of awareness of the importance of immigration in the development of South Africa. Citizens should be reoriented in order to make them more open to the idea of immigration and African immigrants.
From reading the authors article I think the statements made are strong enough and correct. I think that migration does have positive and negative effects on any economy because even within the economy of The Bahamas, migration problem I also see negative and positive effects from it as well. I did not notice any weaknesses in the article because all statements made were backed up by a source and explained, either with a diagram, a survey or even a chart. This article on the Socio- Economic impact of African Immigration on Urban development in South Africa in the case of Empangeni, I think was a really thorough piece of work because it really informed me and helped me to understand how migration works and the effects of it in that part of the world. I think the strongest part of the author’s argument is when she states that “there is no single factor explanation of why people migrate. Rather, there are several interdependent factors involved ranging.” This is true because there are many different reasons why people do migrate it will never be one single positive or negative motive and that’s the main key thing we have to keep in mind when talking about migration

Article Three
The title of this article is Rural-urban migration and Urbanization in Gansu Province, China: Evidence of time-series Analysis. The author of the article is Haiyng Ma and L Lina. The main topic is Rural- Urban migration and urbanization. The Purpose of the article aims to examine projections of Gansu’s urbanization level in 1990 -2008 and analyze the long run impact of urbanization construction on rural urban migration wage income in Gansu province. This article empirically investigates dynamic effects of urbanization construction on rural urban migration wage income with time series data. Finally this article shows the result of the urbanization rate in Gansu by displaying the quadratic function model and relationship between urbanization rate and rural- urban migration wage income. The main conclusion of this article is that it contributes an analysis of linkage between urbanization rate and wages in Gansu Province, China.. The evidence the author provides to support the main conclusion is firstly, the projections of Gansu’s urbanization level in 1990-2008. In the article it is examined by the collection of the data of the total population and urban population from Gansu year book in 2009. This collection made the urbanization rate easy to calculate. The calculation rate showed that Gansu province had a stable growth. Secondly, based on the co-integration results, it indicates that there exists a long equilibrium relationship between the urbanization rate and wage. The article provides evidence through the use of the integrated process. Third, through the error correction co –efficient in the article this implies that the assumption that wages implies urbanization is false. Finally, the article investigates dynamic effects of urbanization construction on rural-urbanization migration in come with the time series data.
Since it reform and opening-up, China has experienced enormous development in agriculture and rural economy. As a result, the rural- urban migration around the country occurred and evolved along with process of urbanization. Rural-urbanization workers become a strong new labour force emerging along with the urbanization and the centralization of population and the main source growth in China. As one of the inland and less developed region in the west China, Gansu’s urbanization has substantially lagged behind its economic growth. However, the rural-urban migration influences the healthy development of urbanization, the fundamental solution of the three dimensional rural issues. In the article it examines the projections of Gansu’s urbanization level in 1990-2008 by quadratic function model. The rest of the article was well organized. It began by presenting data and methodology, also analyzing the long-run impact of urbanization construction on rural-urban migration wage income in Gansu. Lastly, it empirically investigates dynamic effect of urbanization construction on rural-urban migration wage income with time series data.
I agree with the author about the rural- urban migration and urbanization in Gansu province and how there has been a linkage between urbanization rate and wages. The reason I agree is because the author provides enough evidence to prove the point being made. The first evidence provided was the urbanization level in 1990-2008 and this was represented in the use of a written examination and in a quadratic model. The article also analyzed the long run impact of urbanization and construction. This was represented using an equation.

Article Four
The topic of this paper is Critical Evaluation of the New Rural-Urban Labour Mobility in China: Reasons and Effect of Rural-Urban Labour Migration on Urban and Rural Labour Market. The author is Lili Ma. The main topic is rural-urban labour Migration. The purpose of this is to explore the cause of new rural urban labour mobility in China. Firstly, the study states major incentives and causes of rural to urban migration. Secondly, possible positive and negative relationships between rural migrant employment and urban residents will be set out. Finally, simultaneous phenomena which are surplus labour in rural areas and migrant labour shortage in urban areas. The main conclusion in new moving population of rural-urban migration is transforming the rural and urban labour force. Deforestation term is a term used in the article that I did not recognize.
There was evidence that I found in the article to support the main conclusion. The article discussed four major reasons why new moving population of rural-urban migrants is transforming the rural and urban labour forces. Firstly, through the incentives and causes of rural to urban migration in China, this section discusses the underlying factors encouraging contemporary rural-urban migration in China. The section broke the discussion down into two major sectors, the rural and urban sectors. In the rural sector the effects of household responsibility system, less profitable conditions and surplus labour in agriculture was analyzed. The house hold responsibility system is the land among the rural households. This system has resulted in the increase in agricultural prices and these agricultural market reforms increased farmer incentives. This system leads to higher work efficiency and decrease of the number of workers needed on the farm; therefore, many farmers lost jobs or do not have enough support from the government. This then lead to the less profitable conditions and increasing course triggered rural-urban migration. Sustain natural growth in the rural population and increases in productivity in agriculture contribute to a very large surplus of labour in agriculture. In the urban sector growing income gap between urban and rural residents, magnetic city and unique institutions restricting migration was analyzed. This sector it discussed distinctively the increased of rural urban migration in China because the rural residents were seeking better living conditions. In the urban area there was cheaper labour; available jobs and rural residents can contribute to urban areas. The magnetic city is the attraction of the urban area. The unique institution restricting migration is the government policy to contribute to encourage rural labourers to migrate from the countryside.
Secondly, possible relationships between rural migrant and employment and urban residents was discussed. This section looked mainly at the positive and negative relationship between rural migrant employment and urban residents. The positive aspect is that both help with production of the country migrants and urban employees can be complements and a decline in demand for urban employment has no impact on migrant workers if the cause for the decline is the retrenchment of surplus labour that exists only among urban residents. The negative impact increased competition for employment opportunities indicates that a growth in the employment of migrants can create a decrease in the employment of urban workers and increased unemployment amongst them.
Thirdly, the empirical findings on the attitudes of companies and of workers were discussed. This section emphasised two major things, managerial attitudes towards migrants and urban worker attitudes towards migrants. The managerial attitudes are based on the view points of urban worker employers of migrant labour at the beginning of the redundancy programme and the other was perspectives of the urban workers after programme. The urban workers felt about the migrant workers. This attitudinal evidence is that corporations perceived urban works in migrants to be complements in a segmented market. Lastly, the puzzle of rural labour surplus and migrant labour in shortage in China; in the article the reasons for migrant labour shortage is because institutionalized and systematic discrimination is an important reason why migrants choose to come by themselves and leave family members behind in their respective villages.
With the reforms of Chinese economy, an enormous new moving population of rural-urban migrants is transforming the rural and urban labour force. The floating population makes contributions to the urbanization of China. The articles discussed many reasons for the-urbanization in China. From the reading of this article I felt that it was very in lighting. The facts were proven when the article showed different diagrams of China’s population and labour force by area of residence and how it increased in millions from 2001-2008. Also, it showed a survey of urban worker attitudes towards migrants. Surprisingly, the highest percentage was in migrants who werm no less efficient than urban workers in the same position.

Analysis
All the articles I read spoke about migration and each had its own unique sense of the articles. Each h article looked at migration from different perspectives but there were still some similarities. Firstly, article one looked mainly at the push and pull factors of migration. It stated in detail reasons on where and under what condition the push and pull factors occur. It spoke on Elderly African migrating to the United States and other groups of Africans who migrate to the United States .Some of the pull factors include education, better economic opportunities and family unification. Some of these push factors include political turmoil, religious conflicts and ethnic conflict. A similar article to this was article four which briefly discussed a push factor. It discussed how farmers migrated from a rural are to an urban area for better of life. Secondly, international and internal migration was a perspective mentioned in the articles. Article one spoke on international migration but article two, three and four were on internal migration. Article one spoke on persons migrating from Africa to the United States this displayed international migration. Article two; simply gave a detailed account on migration in South Africa (internal migration) where persons migrated from a rural area to an urban area in that country. Article three spoke on people migrating from rural to urban areas in China. Article four also spoke on Chinese farmers migrating from rural areas to urban areas in China. Thirdly, both articles three and four spoke about immigration migration which triggered urbanization. Article three took it from the perspective where it empirically investigates dynamic effects of urbanization construction on rural urban migration wage income with time series data. It shows the result of the urbanization rate in Gansu by displaying the quadratic function model and relationship between urbanization rate and rural- urban migration wage income. Article four examined it from the perspective of the floating population to make contributions to the urbanization of China. Articles three and four also had diagrams and equations to prove it points.
Fourthly, each article looked at persons migrating for a better way of life through jobs. Article one discussed how elderly Africans migrated to get away from the conflicts and turmoil going on in the country. To find better jobs and unite with loved ones in the United States. Article two also showed how African migrated from rural to urban areas in South Africa for better jobs. Article three discussed rural- urban migration in China for better jobs and it showed how the migration process help build the economy in China. Article four, also highlighted farmers seeking better jobs in China, persons migrated from rural to urban areas.
Lastly, of all the different types of migration only three types are seen in these articles these, are permanent, voluntary or forced. In article one, forced permanent and voluntary were seen. Forced was seen through the various push factors that caused the Elderly Africans to migrate; for example turmoil and conflicts. It became voluntary when the elderly left Africa and migrated to the United States. Once they arrived to the United States, they permanently stayed. In article two, voluntary was seen through Africans leaving the rural area of South Africa to migrate to the urban areas of that country. Once they arrived to the urban areas, they permanently stayed. In articles three and four, voluntary migration was also evident. Chinese migrated from rural areas to urban areas in China. Once they arrive in the urban areas, of China they permanently stayed. These articles changed my perspective on rural-migration on the amount of persons that migrate from rural to urban areas. This means that this triggered a high immigration rate and this stood out to me because that means that there will be an increase in population in urban areas which will contribute to the building up of the economy.
Conclusion
I learn a lot about the meaning of migration, the different types of migration and why people migrate. Migration is the movement of a person from location to the next. The types of migration include permanent, temporary, voluntary and forced. People migrated due to various push and pull factors. These articles were indeed interesting to read. It was good to learned about what happens in different countries.

References
Efe, Isike Mary. (2012). THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF AFRICAN IMMIGRATION ON URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA:THE CASE OF EMPANGENI. Ontario International Development Agency, (print), http://www.ssrn.com/link/OIDA-Intl-Journal-Sustainable-Dev.html

Haiying, M., & Lina, L. (2011). Rural-urban Migration and Urbanization in Gansu Province, China: Evidence from Time-series Analysis. Asian Social Science, 7(12), 141-145. doi:10.5539/ass.v7n12p141
Ma , Lili. (2012). Critical Evaluation of the New Rural-Urban Labor Mobility in China: Reasons and Effect of Rural-Urban Labor Migration on Urban and Rural Labor Market. Asian Social Science, 8(3), 321-328. doi:10.5539/ass.v8n3p321 Mbanaso.U, MICHAEL & Crewe E. Sandra.(2012) Migration and Elderly Africans in the United States School of Social Work, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online