...DNA that can be found within, it provides the earliest post-implantation test. * Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) and Amniocentesis are two rather invasive testing procedures. These may, in principle, be formed as early as the 8th and 9th week of pregnancy. The difficulty of these tests and the risk of damage to the fetus, potentially resulting in miscarriage or congenital abnormalities (especially when done early during the pregnancy), make them quite rare during the first trimester. Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT) is a medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections, in which a small amount of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal tissues, is sampled from the amnion or amniotic sac surrounding a developing fetus, and the fetal DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities. This process can be used for prenatal sex discernment and hence this procedure has legal restrictions in some countries. * Obstetric Ultrasonography, either transvaginally or transabdominally, can check for the sagittal sign as a marker of fetal sex. It can be performed between 65 and 69 days from fertilization (week 12 of gestational age), where it gives a result in 90% of cases. Applications: Potential applications of prenatal sex discernment include: * A complement to specific gene testing for monogenic disorders, which can be very useful for genetic diseases with sex linkage, such as, for example, X-linked diseases...
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...The Uses and Possible Abuses of PGD In this paper I will discuss what exactly pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is and multiple moral theories apply to it. The moral issues surrounding PGD are autonomy and Utilitarianism. After that I will discuss the possible problems that the use or PGD could cause in today’s society. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is a process in which embryos are tested to detect certain genetic characteristics during in vitro fertilization. There are three main disorders that can be detected through PGD. The first are sex-linked disorders. The mother’s abnormal X-chromosome is passed on to the son instead of the father’s regular chromosome. These disorders affect only sons, but girls can become carriers of an abnormal X-chromosome. Some examples of sex-linked disorders are hemophilia, neuromuscular dystrophies and Rett syndrome. The second set of disorders is single gene disorders. Disorders in this category contain cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and Huntington disease. The last group of disorders is chromosomal disorders. Chromosomal disorders are caused by chromosomal mutations. The process in which the embryos are tested is very complex and has multiple steps. The couple must already be in the process of IVF, or in vitro fertilization. The first step of PGD is ovarian stimulation. Ovarian stimulation is used to create multiple eggs. The second step is the harvesting of the eggs. Although the procedure is short, the woman is put under...
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...years. Gender selection has been associated with a number of ethical, moral, social and legal issues. Sex selection may be performed for medical reasons to avoid sex-linked diseases or for parental preference. The topics I will be covering include eugenics, beneficence, utilitarianism and pre-genetic screening in regards to sex linked diseases. Eugenics can be defined as the study or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species. In the context of IVF, treatment positive eugenics encourages reproduction by implantation of healthy embryos with inheritable desirable traits and negative eugenics seeks to identify and dispose of embryos found to carry undesirable inheritable traits. Introduction: Utilitarianism in the context of IVF sex selection and genetic screening is defined by the principle of utility, which seeks to judge moral rules, actions and behaviors based on their consequences. Where an action produces the best possible outcome, that being the greatest good for the greatest number it is seen as ethical and moral. Therefore, the testing, screening and disposal of genetically impaired embryos and implantation of only healthy and preferred embryos is justifiable because the outcome is seen as beneficial for the majority. The ethical principle of beneficence means to do good or an action done to benefit others, and therefore act to maximize benefits and minimize harm. The language of a principle or rule...
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...Genetic testing is a scientific process in which an individual’s DNA can be screened for mutations or variations that may cause certain diseases or dysfunctions. It is my opinion that standard genetic testing for disease or the predisposition to disease is purely beneficial. Having clear answers as to whether or not a person may carry a higher risk for some diseases may in fact save their life, or the lives of their current or future children. However, over the years of development of the science, more and more controversial types of testing have developed. In this paper, the science of genetic testing will be introduced by going through a brief history, the different types of genetic testing available, as well as the controversies that surround them. History Genetic testing had a very positive and productive start. The first usage of Genetic Testing occurred over half a century ago, beginning with the testing of infants for PKU, or Phenylketonuria, “an inborn error of metabolism in which an amino acid buildup in the blood causes mental retardation.” (Lewis) To test infants, a drop of blood was taken from their heel while at the hospital after birth. If a child was found positive for PKU, dietary treatment was used to prevent loss of brain function. Testing was reliable and results were accurate. The disease being tested for was easily treatable, and every child that came through was tested without a problem. (Lewis) In the 1970’s, doctors began the process of testing...
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...Melissa Stapleton Ms. Perryman SBI4U May 21st, 2013 My Sisters Keeper Every day people face challenges that are affected by what we feel is morally right or not. One topic in particular however, is an ongoing battle of ethical morality and this topic has to do with the problem surrounding the reasons for designer babies. A designer baby is defined as “a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected by genetic engineering combined with in vitro fertilization to ensure the presence or absence of particular genes or characteristics". (Web Source) Some people say that this process is unnatural and should never have even been created. Others say that this process is the way of the future, and that everyone should undergo this operation. Whichever side people lie on, there are valid points for both sides of the argument. Personally, I believe that children should not be produced for medical reasons under any circumstances because it would create an in equality amongst society, it could cause harmful long term effects and it takes away the child’s rights. Firstly, if this process gained popularity it would create an inequality amongst society and create children with added benefits. The process that creates designer babies is called Vitro Fertilization and it involves “monitoring and stimulating the development of healthy egg(s) in the ovaries. Then collecting the eggs and securing the sperm. Then combining the eggs and sperm together in the laboratory and provide...
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...MFS, including aortic aneurysms and dissections.1 Individuals does not show general features of connective tissue disorders and no specific genes have been labelled and therefore all the family members can be at risk.1 Management principles of MFS have proven as an effective diagnosis for individuals with familial aortic aneurysm.1 Homocystinuria due to cystathionine is another differential diagnosis, where patients are presented with tall physique, long-overgrown bones and ectopia lentis.1 However, they do not have aortic aneurysms or dissections.1 They are inherited as autosomal recessive, where MFS is dominant, and individuals have mental retardation due to thromboembolism and incidence of coronary artery atherosclerosis.1 Raised concentration of plasma homocystine in the blood test can help distinguish between MFS and...
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...Tay-Sachs Disease Tay-Sachs Disease is a neurological disorder that is passed on from parent to child in the same way that other genetic traits are passed on. The first section of this paper, on pathophysiology, will go into this subject further. It will explain not only how the trait for this disease is passed from generation to generation, but also the specific mutations that cause it. This section will explore the trait that is expressed when the gene is turned on, how it effects cell metabolism, and in turn, the disorder that is caused in the body as a result. The second section will describe the clinical manifestation of the disease. It will cover what is typical in a patient with the disease, initial and continuing symptomology, and unfortunately, the cause of death in most people who have the disease. Lastly, the final section will reveal the medical management of the disease. Tay-Sachs has caused so much suffering, but with the advances made in genetic technology, and a little luck, the current generation of researchers are hoping to change that (Wise, 2012). Pathophysiology Tay-Sachs disease results from a number of different mutations on the fifteenth chromosome. When the gene functions correctly, it results in an enzyme called hexosaminodase. This enzyme breaks down molecules in the body called gangliosides. Without the proper enzyme to break these molecules down, they build up in what are called ganglion cells. These cells then swell keeping the neurons fro functioning...
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...materials anymore, it’s reached a new level; genetics. There is nothing ethical about being able to essentially manipulate the genes of a fetus to reflect characteristics deemed suitable by the parents. The characteristics chosen by the parents, such as a medical miracle match of genes to another sibling, set the child up to become what the parents want and not necessarily what the child wants to be. Genetic alteration of the baby also contributes to the unfairness that is gender preference and gender based discrimination. The possibility of genetic hierarchies, to which those that are not genetically enhanced are considered inferior, will increase tremendously because of the increasing gap between classes. It is understandable that technology is moving humanity towards a better more advanced future, but what shouldn’t be forgotten is that some things created in nature cannot be replaced by technology. Designer babies are just one of the few gray areas in which science infringes upon the way of nature. Scientists claim that not everything about genetically altered test tube babies can be considered bad. Science has been able to manipulate fetuses to be born with distinct genes and traits that are considered “savior” because everything about them can be used to help an ailing sibling. The process of selectively screening certain genetic traits and then re-implanting them back into the mother is called Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis. The term designer is derived from this...
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...covers issues concerning genetic engineering, PGD and savior siblings. Older sister Kate is chronically ill, suffering from leukemia-related illnesses since she was a young child. Her parents, Sara and Brian, conceived younger sister Anna as a genetically-engineered baby to be the perfect match for Kate as a blood and bone-marrow donor. For thirteen years. Anna has gone along with it, but when her parents ask for a kidney, she gets herself a lawyer and sues for medical emancipation; the right over her own body. My Sister’s Keeper covers issues concerning genetic engineering, PGD and savior siblings The story revolves around 13-year-old Anna, a child created in order to serve as a matched tissue donor for her older sister Kate, who suffers from leukemia. At the very beginning of the movie, Anna says, “I’m an allogenic donor—a perfect sibling match. When Kate needs leukocytes or stem cells or bone marrow to fool her body into thinking it’s healthy, I’m the one who provides them. Nearly every time Kate’s hospitalized, I wind up there, too. None of which means anything, except that you shouldn’t believe what you hear about me, least of all that which I tell you myself.” Anna is a savior sibling is a child who was born to provide an organ or cell transplant to Kate, who is affected with a fatal disease in leukemia.Technicians, can screen the multiple embryos that are typically produced with in vitro fertilization and choose those that have the desired genetic characteristics. The...
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...Defines and describes the process of PGD “Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is a procedure used prior to implantation to help identify genetic defects within embryos created through in vitro fertilization to prevent certain diseases or disorders from being passed on to the child.” This definition is from Americanpregnancy.org. PGD is used to screen for genetic diseases in embryos before they are placed back into the Uterus through IVF. If an embryo comes back with a genetic disease it is discarded and the viable embryos are the only ones inserted back into the uterus. There are risks that come with this type of test, 1-2% of embryos tested get damaged in the process, and sometimes not all embryos make it to the stage to go through PGD....
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...are structures found in the nucleus of most cells. They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene. The proteins can either be: structural proteins such as the ones found in muscles and hair enzymes, such as proteases and other digestive enzymes Variation Individuals differ in all sorts of ways, even when they are offspring of the same parents. These differences are called variation. Most characteristics, such as height, are determined by several genes working together. They are also influenced by environmental factors. These include: Climate, diet, physical accidents, culture&lifestyle Identical twins Identical twins are genetically the same. They are a good example of the interaction between inheritance and the environment. For example, an identical twin who takes regular exercise will have better muscle tone than one who does not exercise. All of the differences that you see between identical twins, for example, in personality, tastes and aptitude, are due to differences in their experiences or environment. When an egg and sperm cell come together, the now fertilised egg contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are responsible for certain genetic traits. Sex cells and chromosomes Human body cells each contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Parents pass on their genes to...
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...idea of designer babies. I am going to tell you about what exactly is a designer baby, the pros, and the cons of having a designer baby.. The positives: Take the case of Cindy and John Whitley. Their first child died at the age of 9 months from a deadly genetic disorder called spinal muscular atrophy. Genetic analysis uncovered that the Whitley’s statistically had a 1 in 4 chance of creating a child with spinal muscular atrophy each time they conceived. Unwilling to risk having another child with the deadly disorder, the Whitley’s used PGD to conceive three children, all healthy. To start off with, designer babies aren’t easy to develop it takes a lot of knowledge. According to research done by scientist Keith Kleiner, “…Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis is used with in vitro fertilization to look at embryos for over 100 diseases before it is in the mother.” After seeing what embryos have diseases they then destroy them. Scientist use in vitro fertilization to fertilize the eggs with the sperm. It allows doctors to reduce that the child is born with a less of a chance with a disorder. Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis only allows good embryos back into the mother. In the future, scientists will be able to cure genetic diseases. However, the positives of designing the “perfect” child are that more children would less likely be born without a disease such as Down...
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...Designer Babies A couple just got married a few weeks ago, and they are looking for the perfect car. They go down to the dealership in hopes of finding their dream car. The couple gets there and continues to look around, when they find a Buick Enclave. It is brand new and looks nice, but it does not have everything they are looking for. A salesman comes over to ask if they need some assistance, and they tell the salesman they like the car but it just does not have all the things they are looking for. The salesman tells them it is not a problem; they can just special order the car if they wanted. The salesman brings them inside and hands them a list of options they are able to choose from. Color? Blue. Seats? Leather. DVD player? Heck yes! Seat warmers? Yes please. Chrome wheels? Of course. The salesman then sends the lists of options to the Buick Company so the couple’s car can be custom built. The couple is happy with the car they got to design themselves, but now it is time for them to have a child. The couple wants their child to be a girl, somewhat tall, with blonde hair, big blue eyes, and olive skin tone. They go to the doctors and the doctor tells them that it is possible for them to have their “dream child”. The couple is ecstatic and tells the doctor what they want. Nine months later they have themselves their perfect child. Scientists have already modified animals and crops, so why not babies? There are arguably positive and negative results...
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...Designer babies Since the discovery of DNA in the late 1950's, the possibility of genetic modification of animals and plants has become a reality. The term designer baby refers to the genetic modification of the child in its early fetal life. The world of genetic modification has long moved on from the days of Dolly the Sheep. How is a designer baby created? * An embryo is created by in-vitro fertilization (IVF). * A single cell is removed from that embryo within the first 5 days of its creation. * The cell is genetically tested. * The parents decide whether to discard the embryo or implant it in the mother's womb. Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project (HGP) was the international, collaborative research program whose goal was the complete mapping and understanding of all the genes of human beings. All our genes together are known as our "genome." The Human Genome Project started in the 1980s as an organized effort to provide the information researchers need to understand the genetic basis of all disease. GINA is the first major federal law to come out of the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications portion of the Human Genome Project. This law made sure that people were treated fairly when it came to getting a job and stuff like that even if they had a disorder or disease Literature review Mark Hughes, a pioneer of the PGD process and director of Genesis Genetics Institute says, “It’s technically feasible and it can be done,” adding that “no...
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...and controversy over the years. Gender selection has been associated with a number of ethical, moral, social and legal issues. Sex selection may be performed for medical reasons to avoid sex-linked diseases or for parental preference. The topics I will be covering include eugenics, beneficence, utilitarianism and pre-genetic screening in regards to sex linked diseases. Eugenics can be defined as the study or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species. In the context of IVF treatment positive eugenics encourages reproduction by implantation of healthy embryos with inheritable desirable traits and negative eugenics seeks to identify and dispose of embryos found to carry undesirable inheritable traits. Utilitarianism in the context of IVF sex selection and genetic screening is defined by the principle of utility which seeks to judge moral rules, actions and behaviours on the basis of their consequences. Where an action produces the best possible outcome; that being the greatest good for the greatest number it is seen as ethical and moral. Therefore the testing, screening and disposal of genetically impaired embryos and implantation of only healthy and preferred embryos is justifiable because the outcome is seen as beneficial for the majority. The ethical principle...
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