Turning off the water | DIY - Plumbing - Turning Off Water | | | There will be times when you will need to advise a customer to turn off the water in an emergency when there is a leak (or for doing repairs like changing a tap washer.) Either way it's important that you know how to do this in order to advise the customer correctly. There are various points at which it can be done. | | | | | | | | | | | | | Simplified diagram showing shut off points for water | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | There should be a main stop cock somewhere in a house which the customer will need to find. The main stop cock will often be found together with other utilities like gas and electricity very close to where they enter the house. When found, advise customer to try turning it off. It will probably be quite stiff as it's rarely used. Try spraying a little WD40 on the shaft. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Types of stop cock | | | | | | | | | | | | NB CLOCKWISE TO CLOSE | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| TipIf it is hard to turn, remove the tap handle by unscrewing the retaining screw and pulling it off (or gently tap it with a hammer if won't pull off easily) then there will be a square shaft which can be turned with an adjustable spanner. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Alternatively a main stop cock can be found in the street outside the house.
This is actually the property of the water board. But it can be used to turn of the supply to a house in an emergency. (NB if you live in a house converted into flats you may share this stop cock with the other flats, so turning off your supply here will turn off theirs too.)

The older types need a large metal key to turn them off which is quite long as the stop cock can be quite deep (available at good DIY shops). The newer (round) ones have plastic fittings and a plastic key should be found inside after lifting the lid. Use an old screwdriver to get the lid up. A load of soily dust may be found inside which will have to be dug out first to get to the stopcock itself. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Right. Two slightly different styles of old street stopcock covers.Below is a universal stopcock key. Available at good DIY stores £10-15 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A more modern street stopcock. These have a plastic stopcock quite near the surface. If you're lucky there should be a small stop-cock key inside | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| As well as mains stop cocks there are probably other stop cocks around the house to enable isolation of individual taps. (Probably found under the sink to switch off the mains cold water supply.) It will probably look like one of those pictured earlier. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sometimes very handy in-line shut off valves prior to taps; toilets, washing machines etc. can be found. This is great as it allows isolation of individual items. These will have a little knob to turn through 90 degrees to shut off the supply, or, as pictured right they are shut off with a screwdriver. When the slot is in line with the pipe the valve is open. When it's a right angles the valve is shut. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gravity fed water systems
If there is gravity feed heating/ water supply system which involves a tank. usually in the loft (or somewhere up high) and a hot water cylinder, even with the incoming mains off, the tank in the loft will still supply water to the hot taps and sometimes water to the cold in the bathroom and toilet. The tank in the loft will often have a stop cock which can stop the tank emptying. It may be that there are individual shut off valves on the hot taps, toilet etc. The kitchen cold water will come off the mains.NB If a shut off valve can't be found let the feed tank drain completely with the mains shut off. The only problem with this is that air locks in the pipe work can occur when you come to turn it back on, which can be tricky to get rid of. | | | |

How a heating/hot water system works
When attempting to turn off the water in a home it is generally good to know what type of system a customer has. You need to know if they have:
1 A mains system (either a high pressure or a combi boiler) or,
2 A gravity fed tank system. Gravity Fed

If it is a gravity fed tank system as well as the boiler there will also be a hot water cylinder in a cupboard somewhere and also much higher up (like in a loft) a cold water feed/expansion tank(s).
With these systems there is usually only mains pressure to the cold water taps, so turning off the mains will only shut these off. The hot water taps will be fed from the tank in the loft which flows by gravity down the hot water cylinder and forces hot water out to the hot water taps.
Some systems also feed cold water to bathroom cold taps and the toilet cistern so the only mains water is going to the cold tap in the kitchen.
If work is being done on say the hot water tap in the bathroom, turn off the mains first, and then run the tap until the tank in the loft empties. (Not necessary if no stop cock coming from this tank.) Simply turning this off will stop the flow of water. This is actually much more preferable because if the tank has to be drained an air lock in the pipes can happen which can sometimes be a bit tricky to get rid of and means very little water will be coming out of the tap!
Some systems incorporate a pump to help provide greater pressure at the taps. In residential areas with low water pressure, a gravity or gravity/pumped system is usually the best option.

Combi Boiler
A relatively new type of heating system, normally found in smaller properties with limited space. The benefit is they require no feed tank or hot water tank. Hot water is made as you turn on the tap. All your water including the hot is mains fed so you have good pressure throughout.
You only need to turn off the mains stopcock to turn all the water off.
Advantages are that they are compact, require no hot water or feed tank, and you get mains pressure to all taps.
The disadvantages of these types are that flow rate can be limited so not suitable for multiple heavy demand (e.g. homes with several bathrooms.) locations.

In the UK there are currently three main types of gas heating and hot water systems.
1. A mains system (either a high pressure or a combi boiler) or,
2. A gravity fed tank system.
Checkout the Gas Appliance Guide site for description with pro's and cons. http://www.gasapplianceguide.co.uk/central_heating_systems.htm

Radiators not heating up This is quite a common problem. There are a few things that can be looked at before getting in a technician.

Radiator warm at the bottom but cold at the top

This is usually due to air in the system. Most commonly happens after the heating has been off for lengthy periods. Advise customer to use a radiator key to "bleed" the air out. Unscrew the bleed screw just enough to hear air hiss out. Get ready to tighten it up as soon as water starts to come out. The radiator should then feel warm at the top.

All radiators warm except one cold all over.

Hot water isn't getting to that one radiator. Check that both the valves are open, they should be fully anticlockwise. Sometimes they are very stiff. If the customer can't turn them, try unscrewing the screw on the cap and pull the cap off to reveal a square shaft and then use a spanner to move.

Sometimes a valve will seize up so that even though they seem open they are closed. This commonly happens to thermostatic control valves. These are the type where you can turn a dial to select a room temp and the valve opens and shuts automatically.
It's a fairly straightforward job to change these valves but usually involves draining down the central heating system and make sure it's working again afterwards. Customers would need a professional to do this.

NB the larger valve is normally used to control the amount of hot water that enters the radiator. This is used to control the radiator temp. The smaller valve is purely an isolation valve and is normally always left open. (Temp control valve and smaller isolating valve – turn anti-clockwise to open.) All radiators cold

Is the boiler actually working? Check that the gas burners are ignited. If the customer has a combi boiler, check that the pressure on the pressure dial is in the range as specified in the instruction manual and top up with water if necessary. Refer to your soft fix document for further advice. All radiators only a little warm but not hot enough

If bleeding has been carried out without success, then there could be one of many causes. A technician will need to be deployed. | | | | | | | | | | | Sinks/baths/showers Sinks will often block up with grease, food waste, lime-scale etc. A slowing down of the water draining away will be noticed. It is best to do something about the problem asap, as it will be much easier to unblock and will prevent a possible emergency resulting in a badly blocked sink and overflowing water! There are various methods to try, both mechanical and chemical; options include a range of mechanical un-blockers for sinks drains and WC's. | | | | DIY stores will be able to supply a range of chemicals and many supermarkets now supply these too. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Checkout the trap. This u-shaped water trap stops smells coming back up from the drains.
It is fairly easy to unscrew the plastic fittings with fingers (if not use a damp tea-towel.) Put a bowl underneath as there will be a little water coming out.
Check the contents and make sure there's nothing inside. When screwing it back ensure the rubber seals are nicely in place.

Check for leaks when it back together.
If the problem is still there the blockage may be further down the waste pipe. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| Plunging This can be effective and works by forcing air down the pipe. A traditional black rubber plunger is OK but modern ones or professional ones are much more effective as they force more air down the pipe. Some use water which is forced against the blockage. Tip This method will only work well if any ways the air can escape like the overflow outlet, an adjacent sink plug hole, or a waste disposal, are blocked off. Hold a damp cloth over them, or, cover with duck tape (thick heavy sticking tape.) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Master plunger. Gives great plunging action. Sinks baths, showers. £7 | Water plunger. Sucks up water then pumps it against the blockage. Toilet, sinks, showers. B&Q £7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Other mechanical methods Drain cleaning springs are essentially very long flexible springs which are guided down the waste pipe and turning along the way.

Different size springs can be purchased depending on whether it’s for large or small pipes and different lengths. Can be very effective but a bit messy and not very pleasant to use especially if one used for toilet blockages! Wear rubber gloves! | | | | | | Small drain spring. This one is for basins. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Chemical Chemical un-blockers work by dissolving organic materials. These are very good at dissolving hair that found in the waste or trap of a shower or bath whose traps can be fiddly to get to.

Various chemical types are available which are simply poured down the drain. Some are stronger than others. Those available in a supermarket tend to be milder but can be useful for minor blockages and prevention.

For more severe blockages something stronger will be needed. Caustic soda is a powered chemical which you mix with water. CAUTION it can be dangerous if not handled properly or if instructions not followed very carefully. As well as causing chemical burns it tends to react with water, generating heat. One-shot un-blocker is very similar. It is a very strong liquid sulphuric acid. Keep out of reach of children. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Other methods Some newer types of un blockers are currently available in a large aerosol, which shoot a blast of air or liquid down the waste pipe. These can be highly successful, but only if it is remembered to make sure that every other exit is blocked off similarly as you would when using a plunger.

The disadvantage is the aerosols run out quite quickly and have to be replaced. | | | | | | | Power plunger aerosol un blocker Works on sinks, toilets, showers etc. Available from B&Q | | | | |

| Gas | | | | DON'T EVEN THINK ABOUT IT !!! Gas is potentially extremely dangerous. You should NOT attempt any job that relates to gas or gas appliances. You need to get a fully qualified gas installer. By law, a gas technician must be on the GAS SAFE REGISTER to carry out gas work in Great Britain and the Isle of Man. The Gas safety register supersedes CORGI who used to be the governing body. Check out the GAS SAFE REGISTER website which gives loads more information and a useful gas safe installer in any area.

http://www.gassaferegister.co.uk | What is electricity? | | | | Electricity is a flow of small particles called electrons, and it is these that make things work.

Electricity flows in a circuit. For each circuit in a house, electricity starts at the consumer unit, flows to the appliance down the live cable then returns to the consumer unit along the neutral cable (a bit like a positive and negative on a battery.) | | | | | | | | | | | | Voltage, Current, Amps, Power, Watts | | | | | | | These terms can be a little confusing but in fact are fairly straightforward | | | | | | | | Voltage can be regarded as a pressure which pushes the electricity around the circuit. It's measured in VOLTS. In the UK electricity is supplied into our homes at 230 volts and this stays fairly constant. All your appliances, light bulbs, etc. are designed to run at 230 volts. Some appliances run at lower voltages but they will have a transformer which "transforms" the voltage down to whatever is required e.g. 12 volts for low voltage down lighters. They are all still receiving 230 volts from your electricity supply. Current is the rate of flow of electricity round the circuit. It is measured in AMPS. Something like a fan heater will require much more current to flow than something like a light bulb. Each of the circuits running from your consumer unit (fuse box) will have a protection fuse or a circuit breaker which is rated in amps. The size will vary depending on what the circuit is for e.g. a lighting circuit will be much less than a cooker circuit. Power is the amount of electrical energy used to make something work and is a combination of voltage and current (measured in volts and amps) Power is measured in WATTS. In fact Power = Voltage x Current Or, Watts = Volts x Amps So if you buy a light bulb it could be rated at 230 volts and 60 watts The bigger the wattage the brighter will be the bulb and the more power it will use and your electricity bill will be higher. | | |

| Domestic wiring and circuits | | | | A customer’s electricity board supplies electricity to the inside of the home. It goes through a large fuse usually 60 amps 80 amps or 100amps which is sealed with electricity board fuses and should never be tampered with. The fuse is then wired to the meter which is also the property of the electricity board. This is then wired to the consumer unit (more commonly known as the fuse box) which contains all the fuses or circuit breakers. The number of these will vary depending on the size of the home. Consumer units should be labelled so you can tell which fuse/ circuit breaker is part of what circuit. All the wiring for all a house starts at the consumer unit. Each fuse/circuit breaker protects the wiring for individual circuits. Usually there will be a lighting circuit on each floor as well as a "ring" circuit for the socket outlets. There will also be other circuits for things like immersion heaters, central heating, cookers, etc. | | | | | | | | Simplified wiring layout
The diagram below shows a simplified version of what might be found in a home. Each circuit is protected by its own fuse. You will commonly find a lighting circuit and socket ring on each floor and sometimes several on each floor in larger houses. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The wiring from your consumer unit for all the circuits and hidden behind walls ceiling voids etc. is insulated "twin and earth" cable.

Underneath an outer insulation there is a live, neutral and earth cable. Unlike the live and neutral the earth does not have its own separate insulation. When terminated at lights sockets etc. earth sleeving must be put on any bare wire(green and yellow stripey.) Recently the colours on the live and neutral have changed from red(live) and black(neutral) to come in line with the colours that have been used for many years on appliances like kettles toasters etc. these are Brown(live) Blue(neutral) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Twin and earth. Old colours | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Twin and earth. New colours | |

Earthing | | | | | In the UK earthing is used as a means to reduce the chance of you getting an electric shock in the event of a fault.

Electricity will, given a chance, want to travel to the actual earth by the most direct route. If you get in its way it will go through you and potentially cause severe injury. By wiring the home with earth cables this allows a safer path for electricity to flow in the event of a fault. A home has several earthing arrangements. Do NOT tamper with them.
-Main earthing terminal depending on the house's particular earthing arrangements. This main terminal connects either back to the electricity board's earth, or in some houses connects to an earthing rod which is buried deeply in the ground(earth) -Main equipotential bonding of metal services. Links water and gas pipes, central heating etc. to the main earthing terminal. -All domestic wiring circuits have an earth cable going back to earth (as part of the "Twin and Earth" cable). These connect back to the consumer unit which connects to the main earth terminal. -Supplementary earth bonding is used in special locations like bathrooms. Links all non-electrical metal things like metal waste pipes, baths, taps etc. | | All appliances with an electrical flex (toasters kettles etc.) will have an earth cable which connects to a house earthing when plugged in. The exceptions are items which are double insulated and therefore do not require an earth. They are clearly marked with a double insulation sign.

Double insulated All of these earthing arrangements will have been installed when the house was wired. They form an essential part of electrical safety and should never be tampered with or removed.

Diagram of incoming electricity showing main earth terminal Bonding of incoming water pipe using earthing strap

Back of a plug socket showing earth cabling which forms part of each circuits wiring. Runs from consumer unit to sockets, lights etc. on each circuit
Back of a plug socket showing earth cabling which forms part of each circuits wiring. Runs from consumer unit to sockets, lights etc. on each circuit
Supplementary bonding behind a bath connecting together metal bath, taps, and water pipes
Supplementary bonding behind a bath connecting together metal bath, taps, and water pipes

Appliance plug showing earth
Appliance plug showing earth

Consumer - (Fuse Box)
The consumer unit (commonly known as the fuse box) has a main isolating switch which turns all the power off.
Additionally you will see a number of fuse carriers, or in newer units circuit breakers.

Fuse carriers
In older houses which probably haven't been rewired for a long time you may have a consumer unit with pull out fuse carriers which either have a wire fuse which you change with fuse wire, or a cartridge fuse which slots in place.

If a fuse blows you will need to replace these. Make sure you switch off the main isolating switch on the consumer unit.

NB IT IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE SAFE WORKING OF YOUR HOUSEHOLD WIRING THAT YOU USE THE CORRECT SIZE FUSE OR FUSE WIRE.

Rewirable fuse

Rewirable fuse

Cartridge fuse holder. Some simply pull apart, some have a retaining screw.
Cartridge fuse holder. Some simply pull apart, some have a retaining screw.
An old consumer unit with pullout fuse carriers. Here the fuses are cartridge fuses. Other types use fuse wire.
An old consumer unit with pullout fuse carriers. Here the fuses are cartridge fuses. Other types use fuse wire.

The carriers are colour coded; 5 amp white 15 amp blue 20 amp yellow 30 amp red 45amp green Tip - have some spares fuses or fuse wire handy with a torch near to the fuse box so fuses can be changed if they blow which may well happen when its dark. Circuit breakers Modern fuse boxes don't have fuses they have circuit breakers. These are a much more convenient system because they are resettable by simply flicking the reset switch back into the on position. Circuit breakers will normally be rated at 6 amps, 10 amps 16 amps 20 amps 32amps 40 amps 50 amps. Individual circuit breaker. These are fixed inside your consumer unit. Do not attempt to remove.
Individual circuit breaker. These are fixed inside your consumer unit. Do not attempt to remove.
Modern consumer unit with circuit breakers. This one is a split load. Half the circuits are additionally protected by and RCD
Modern consumer unit with circuit breakers. This one is a split load. Half the circuits are additionally protected by and RCD

RCD's - Residual Current Device These devices give extra protection in the event of an earth leakage fault on any of the electrical circuits in a home. They are very sensitive and will trip the electricity supply and switch it off. They work by detecting very small quantities of earth leakage (that is, current flowing down the earth cable which it shouldn't). They do this by measuring any differences between current flowing in the live cable and current flowing in the neutral. This should be the same but if the difference is greater than 30 milliamps then they trip out the supply. Some appliances will have very small amounts of background leakage. As they age or become faulty the leakage may increase. Other causes of leakage can be water of dampness. There are several types of RCD's which all do the same job; - RCD's may form part of the consumer unit, in which case they may also be integral with the main isolating switch. - RCD's may be self-contained units that can be added to individual circuits. - RCD's can be plug in types that are simply plugged into a socket to protect that one socket - RCD's may form part of a socket outlet For new installations the current electricity regulations stipulate that RCD's must be used in certain areas e.g. with any socket outlet that may be used for electrical equipment in the garden. RCD integrated into a twin socket
RCD integrated into a twin socket Plug in RCD Plug in RCD
Split load consumer unit. Half is RCD protected.
Split load consumer unit. Half is RCD protected.

Basic fault finding and simple repairs - Electrics Most faults are from a fairly simple cause. Sometimes these are easy to track down sometimes not. The key to success is to use a logical and systematic approach when trying to pinpoint the cause. A good starting point is to get familiar with the fuse box - whether it is a fuse type or a circuit breaker type. Identifying what circuits there are and what they do is very helpful. There are probably several lighting circuits, probably one on each floor and several socket circuits (ring circuits) one on each floor. Additionally there may be several circuits for individual things like cookers, electric showers, alarms, out-door power, etc. In the event of a fault there may be a fuse blown or a circuit breaker trips on one of these circuits. Clearly the problem is limited to that one circuit. The breaker can be reset or the fuse can be changed. This may well solve the problem if it has been caused by a temporary overload. If the fuse blows again or the breaker trips there is still a fault and there will be a need to investigate that circuit. Either, the circuit is drawing too much current (which could be the result of a faulty appliance or there are too many appliances for the rating of that circuit), Or, there is a short circuit which means somewhere there is a live wire touching something it shouldn't, which will be due to one of several possible causes. Lighting circuits which won't reset.
A common fault is a short circuit on the bulb holder which can get damaged by heat which also makes the cable brittle and then the insulation fails. With the power off check for damage
The bulb holder will need to be replaced and the cable if it’s scorched or the cable is brittle. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Examining the bulb holder | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The plastic ceiling rose could also be unscrewed to check for any signs of corrosion on the wires, possibly as a result of some dampness. | Examining ceiling rose | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A common light fitting nowadays are low voltage down lightersThe fittings attach into a round hole in the ceiling using a spring clip. Inside there is a connection block and a small transformer connecting to the lighting circuit. These lights tend to generate a lot of heat and regularly become heat damaged on the cable and sometimes the transformer. If so they'll need to be replaced. These fittings need to have a good air gap in the ceiling void. Remove any insulation that is close by.

NB if a transformer is replaced (approx. £7) - ensure the mains wire is wired to the mains and the low voltage wire to the bulb holder fitting. They will be marked. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Pull down light fitting. Most are spring loaded | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
All the relevant parts unscrew. Make sure the power is turned off first. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Socket circuits are normally very reliable. If they can’t be reset then it may be an overloading of the circuit with too many appliances plugged in. Unplug the appliances. Otherwise a technician needs to be deployed. | | |

Lighting - If a light doesn't work: 1. Have you checked the bulb? 2. Is power getting to the ceiling rose?
Yes? Then it's probably a faulty bulb fitting which needs replacing. If changed, change the cable too as this can get brittle with age (depending on how bad it is this may or may not be blowing a fuse or tripping the breaker.) Be very careful when testing live wires. testing for live at the ceiling rose 3. Is there power to the switch but not the ceiling rose?
Yes? It's probably the switch (often the case with dimmers which are more prone to fail.) testing for live at the switch

For 2 and 3 above a voltage or mains tester needs to be used.
Be very careful when testing live wires.

4. Low voltage down lighters have a quite delicate bulb fittings. These wear quite regularly and need replacing (approx. £2). A tell tail sign that these fittings are failing is if when looking at the bulb one or both of the contacts are discoloured brown or black. If they aren't both nice and shiny the fitting needs replacing. 5. Fittings with screw in (ES) bulbs. This type of fitting can fail simply due to poor contacts that the bulb screws onto. The two contacts are generally brass and slightly springy. They can oxidise and so cause a bad contact or get forced back by the bulb and lose a bit of their spring. With a small screwdriver, scraping off any corrosion and gently adjusting the contacts up and out a mm. or two will ensure the bulb forms a better contact.

NB under no circumstance do this with the power on. Switch off at the fuse box and test for live with a pre tested voltage tester. Failure to do this could result in serious electric shock.Socket faults Does the appliance in question work in another socket on the same socket circuit? If so then it's probably a faulty socket which will need replacing. Appliances not working? 1. Try them in another socket2. Check the fuse in the plug 3. If other appliances work on the socket and the fuse is checked then the appliance is broken! Replace it or have it repaired by a specialist. Garden/outside lighting If there is garden/outside lighting it should have been installed with outdoor grade fittings which are rain or water proof. Even if this is the case sometimes they do corrode and stop working. Often this causes a short circuit and will continually blow the circuit fuse or trip the breaker. It will need replacing to enable resetting. Garden circuits should also be protected by and RCD (residual current device). This will trip if there is corrosion to cables or a little dampness in the fittings and connections. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | When the fuse blows or breaker trips A house wiring is protected either by fuses or circuit breakers depending on the type. Why do fuses/circuit breakers fail? A fuse is a very important part of the wiring of a house. The fuse will blow or the breaker trip when either: • The circuit is overloaded so that it is trying to draw too much current. • There is a fault on the circuit probably creating a short (short circuit) caused possibly by the live touching neutral or earth wires, or possibly a fault on an appliance. When a fuse blows or a breaker trips, it may be from a temporary problem so the fuse should be changed (or fuse wire) or reset the breaker. If it then blows/trips again then there is still a fault. Unless there is an obvious solution then an electrician will be needed.Sometimes when a light bulb fails it also trips the breaker and simply resetting the breaker will solve the problem. Replacing the fuse wire in a rewirable fuse Resetting a circuit breaker Simply flip the breaker back to the on position. If it won't re-set there is still a fault. "How to" DIY sites www.diynot.com - How to DIY , forums, books, shop....... and more www.diydata.com - How to DIY, books, forumswww.diyfixit.co.uk - Comprehensive how to DIY sitewww.practicaldiy.com - Source of practical DIY advice articles, information and helpwww.diydoctor.org.uk - DIY projects, interactive advice, forums, tool shop, locate a specialist www.hints-n-tips.com - The Practical Information Exchange www.homeserve.co.uk – Plenty of practical soft fix advicewww.handymanknowhow.co.uk – Another comprehensive DIY site | 1. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |