...letters to nature and 10 Na3HP2O7. FV solution also contained 0.2 NaF and 0.1 Na3VO4. Rarely, irreversible current rundown still occurred with FVPP. The total Na+ concentration of all cytoplasmic solutions was adjusted to 30 mM with NaOH, and pH was adjusted to 7.0 with N-methylglucamine (NMG) or HCl. PIP2 liposomes (20–200 nm) were prepared by sonicating 1 mM PIP2 (Boehringer Mannheim) in distilled water. Reconstituted monoclonal PIP2 antibody (Perspective Biosystems, Framingham, MA) was diluted 40-fold into experimental solution. Current–voltage relations of all currents reversed at EK and showed characteristic rectification, mostly owing to the presence of Na+ in FVPP and possibly also residual polyamines. Current records presented (measured at 30 C, −30 mV holding potential) are digitized strip-chart recordings. Purified bovine brain Gbg29 was diluted just before application such that the final detergent (CHAPS) concentration was 5 M. Detergent-containing solution was washed away thoroughly before application of PIP2, because application of phospholipid vesicles in the presence of detergent usually reversed the effects of Gbg; presumably, Gbg can be extracted from membranes by detergent plus phospholipids. Molecular biology. R188Q mutation was constructed by insertion of the mutant oligonucleotides between the Bsm1 and BglII sites of pSPORT– ROMK1 (ref. 11). A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) fragment (amino acids 180–391) from pSPORT–ROMK1 R188Q mutant was subcloned into pGEX2T...
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... 5. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum D. Contains bound ribosomes E. Contains digestive enzymes 6. Which of the following produces membrane proteins? a. Free ribosomes b. Nucleolus c. Bound ribosomes d. Centrioles 7. Red blood cells produce all of their energy anaerobically. Which organelle would red blood cells NOT contain? a. Ribosomes b. Golgi apparatus c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum d. Mitochondria 8. Which of the following would NOT be found in the nucleus? a. DNA b. RNA c. Ribosomes d. Nucleolus 9. Which of the following is true of the Golgi apparatus? a. It synthesizes proteins b. Secretory vesicles exit from the trans-‐face c. It breaks apart larger molecules into smaller ones d. It stores fats 10. Which of the following is NOT part of the endomembrane system? a. Golgi apparatus b. Smooth ER c. Lysosomes d. Cytoskeleton 11. If a cell could...
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...BASILIO, CHIARRA NICOLE P. PROF. VENTURA BS BIOLOGY 4-2 Animal Physiology Lecture 1.) Differentiate DNA and RNA in terms of structure and composition DNA is known as the blueprint of biological guidelines that a living organism must follow to exist and remain functional. RNA on the other hand, helps carry out this blueprint's guidelines. Of the two, RNA is more versatile than DNA because it is capable of performing numerous, diverse tasks in an organism, but DNA is more stable and holds more complex information for longer periods of time. | DNA | RNA | Structural Name: | Deoxyribonucleic Acid | Ribonucleic Acid | Definition | A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all modern living organisms. DNA's genes are expressed, or manifested, through the proteins that its nucleotides produce with the help of RNA. | The information found in DNA determines which traits are to be created, activated, or deactivated, while the various forms of RNA do the work. | Function: | Medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information. | Transfer the genetic code needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. This process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins could never be made. | Structure: | Typically a double- stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides. | A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological...
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...Evolutionary Bioinformatics Computational Identification of MicroRNAs from the Expressed Sequence Tags of Toxic Dinoflagellate Alexandrium Tamarense Dahai Gao1, limei Qiu1, Zhanhui Hou1, Qingchun Zhang2, Jianmin Wu3, Qiang Gao1 and linsheng song1 1 Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOCAS), Qingdao, People’s Republic of China. 2Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOCAS), Qingdao, People’s Republic of China. 3Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China. AbstrAct: Micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) represent a class of small noncoding RNAs that play important roles in multiple biological processes by degrading targeted mRNAs or by repressing mRNA translation. In the case of algal lineages, especially dinoflagellates, knowledge regarding the miRNA system is still limited and its regulatory role remains unclear. In the present study, a computational approach was employed to screen miRNAs from the expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of Alexandrium tamarense. A total of 18 potential miRNAs were identified according to a range of filtering criteria. In addition, unique evolutionary features, such as miRNA gene duplication and sequence similarity to metazoan miRNAs, implied that the miRNA system in dinoflagellates is complex. Moreover, based on these 18 miRNA sequences, 42 potential target...
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...Enzymes are generally globular proteins, acting alone or in larger complexes. Like all proteins, enzymes are linear chains of amino acids that fold to produce a three-dimensional structure. The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme.[18] Although structure determines function, a novel enzyme's activity cannot yet be predicted from its structure alone.[19] Enzyme structures unfold (denature) when heated or exposed to chemical denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of activity.[20] Enzyme denaturation is normally linked to temperatures above a species' normal level; as a result, enzymes from bacteria living in volcanic environments such as hot springs are prized by industrial users for their ability to function at high temperatures, allowing enzyme-catalysed reactions to be operated at a very high rate. Enzymes are usually much larger than their substrates. Sizes range from just 62 amino acid residues, for the monomer of 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase,[21] to over 2,500 residues in the animal fatty acid synthase.[22] Only a small portion of their structure (around 2–4 amino acids) is directly involved in catalysis: the catalytic site.[23] This catalytic site is located next to one or more binding sites where residues orient the substrates. The catalytic site and binding site together comprise the enzyme's active site. The remaining majority of the enzyme structure serves...
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...in the semester. DNA Replication, basics of semi-conservative replication, names and functions of the 5 enzymes required for replication, origins of replication, replication bubbles, differences between leading and trailing strand replication, details of the processes occurring at the replication fork, characteristics of DNA replication, replication problems at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, functions of telomers and teleomerases, chromosome packing, etc. Genes to Proteins, “One gene – one polypeptide chain, flow of genetic information - prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes, mRNA, details of Transcription – initiation, elongation and termination, processing of eukaryotic transcript into mRNA - 5’ cap and poly A tail and their functions, RNA splicing with intron excision by “spliceosomes”, Translation components, mRNA, the genetic code, how the code was deciphered, the code and protein synthesis, features of mRNA codons – starts, stops, be able to read the codon chart, tRNAs, Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase function, Ribosome structure and function, Stages of Translation - initiation, elongation and termination, polyribosomes, completing and targeting of functional proteins, chaperone proteins, post-translational modifications, protein targeting...
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...The polymerase chain reaction is a laboratory process in which a specific sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is amplified producing many copies of the specific DNA sequence. However, their must be components such as (DNA template, primers, DNA polymerase, deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTP’s), buffer solution, and magnesium chloride salt solution) are required to carry out the process which undergoes through three major stages to make the copies of DNA segment. First stage is denaturation, after that annealing, then extension. However, this can be done if and only if the 3’ and 5’ ends are known, this helps in initiating DNA synthesis in which it is ensured that two short oligonucleotides acts as primer will anneal onto DNA strands. Polymerase chain reaction process is used as a diagnostic and research tool due to the fact that it can be done within a few hours which makes it a rapid assay. The polymerase chain reaction is made in an automated machine called thermocycler which can increase and decrease the temperature quickly. The components are mixed together in a tiny volume tube. In the first step the double strands of the DNA are separated into single strand by denaturation at 90 Celsius. After that is annealing which occur at 55-60 Celsius. An excess amount of primers are attached to their corresponding sequence on the original DNA strand to inhibit making double stranded DNA. The final step is extension, where the Thermus aquaticus binds to the annealed primer...
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...The gene ccb-1 that encodes auxiliary β subunit that associated with voltage-gated calcium channel could influence the rate of the pharyngeal pumping in C. elegans. Min Hsuan Wang (U#23090118) Introduction Caenorhabditis elegans is a very important study model that is used for many genetic study because of its features like transparent, easy to handle, short life cycle etc. The feeding behavior is very important in the feeding method of the RNAi silencing experiment that use C. elegans to study genetic. The feeding of bacteria could influence the efficiency of the RNAi silencing. The feeding behavior of C. elegans involves uptake of bacteria, pharyngeal pumping, and isthmus peristalsis.To soak the bacteria inside the C. elegans require pharyngeal pumping to initiate the muscle contraction so that the bacteria can be ingested inside, then followed by the contraction of isthmus peristalsis. In the presence of food, the pumping rate will become more rapid while the pumping rate will be slower when there is no food around the surrounding. The pumping rate can determine the uptake of bacteria, which could have impact on the efficiency of the RNAi experiment, or others studies that involved in digestion system, which is a model for organogenesis and pathogenesis (Eisenmann and Wnt, 2005). Current study has shown that the mechanism of the C. elegans pharyngeal pumping (Figure.1) involves serotonin, a neurotransmitter, MC cells, SER-7 receptor, and the signaling pathway etc (Song and...
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...correct formation of the ribosomal subunits in the particular organism’s ribosome. Degradation or incorrect structural formation of the ribosome can all contribute to an aggregation of protein or improper protein folding that can contribute to a multitude of diseases. This invariably varies among eukaryotic ribosomes, prokaryotic ribosomes, and archaea ribosomes. The entities responsible for the correct formation of the different ribosomal subunits rely heavily on various protein factors and other RNA’s, such as small nucleolar RNA’s (snoRNA’s) as well as non-ribosomal proteins that contribute not only to the proper formation of the ribosome, but its pre-assembly as well (1). There are also a number of enzymes including nucleases, RNA-helicases and RNA-modifying enzymes that also help in pre-assembly and formation of the ribosome (4). Ribosome biogenesis encompasses the entire process of the ribosomes’ maturation, starting from its transcriptional genesis to its completion. Along the way, they undergo a multitude of modifications, the most common being 2’O ribose-methylations and the transition from uridine to pseudouridine (4). In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the ribosome is made up of three subunits, the 18s rRNA, 25s rRNA and the 5.8s rRNA. The 25s rRNA and the 5.8s rRNA are transcribed as one large 35s rRNA subunit and are further cleaved by various exo- and endonucleases (2, 3). These subunits undergo further modification by various preassembly protein factors that further...
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...prove that the heights, colors of the plant and peas, pod shapes, seed shapes, and flower positions was based on traits from the mother and father pea plates passed down to their offspring. Between the years of 1856 and 1863, he prove his hypothesis. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA. In James Watson and Francis Crick notes for the DNA model they stated “immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.” (http://www.genome.gov/10001772#al-2) Within 7 years of James Watson and Francis Crick discoverer of DNA shape, Marshall Nirenberg cracks the genetic code for protein synthesis. In Nirenberg's studies, scientists found out that the letter U (uracils) is only found in RNA. Soon after Nirenberg's studies, Frederick Sanger develops rapid DNA sequencing technique, formally known today as the Sanger method. The Sanger method determine the order of nitrogen bases in a single strand of DNA. After the Sanger method was made it helped out alot with mapping out the human beings genes. Scientists were able to fully map out the first genetic diseases linked to chromosome 4 which is Huntington’s Disease. Starting in 1984, the U.S. Department of Energy, National Institutes of Health, and other international groups held a meeting on how to go about studying the human genome. Than in 1990, U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, published a plan for the first five years of an expected 15-year project...
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...Crispr-Cas 9 is an editing tool that lets scientists have the ability to perform specific edits to genes. It is a step forward from the cumbersome technique called the zinc finger nucleases and Talens. The Crispr-Cas 9 was invented at the University of California, Berkeley and reported very little in the papers about four years ago. Today, the technique is spreading quickly across the world. The discovery of such technique was such a momentous event that Science, a journal, named it “the breakthrough of the year.” With this tool, scientists have better access to understand how the genes and cells in our body work. It helps to open the doors to research that would have been too expensive to do without this new editing technique. Crispr-Cas 9 can also be used in the environment. Some scientists utilize the technique in order to study the cells of plants. With so much ease with the Crispt-Cas 9 scientist have the ability to do things that they have never done before. They now have the chance to cure diseases and strengthen mankind from getting diseases. Other scientists have tried experiments to genes that are specifically dealing genetic makeup. Many people feel that it is unethical to change the genes of another person. The genes in a person’s body literally make up who they are. If scientists have the ability to make such edits to genes, people will lose what biologically makes them who they are. Others might take advantage of the system and try to get all the “good” genes to...
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...hour Max marks: 50 Date: 03.12.12 1. The exam is divided into Part-A (Closed-book type) and Part-B (Open-book type). You are now having Part-A of the question paper. 2. Answer this part of the exam in the space provided. 3. You have a maximum of 45 minutes to answer Part-A, but you can turn in the paper any time after 15 minutes to the invigilator to collect Part-B. NAME: …………………………………..…… ID No.: …………………………… Q1. Match the following. Write answer in given space. [1M ( 5] (i) Ciproflaxacin (a) inhibits protein synthesis (ii) Ethambutol (b) inhibits RNA synthesis (iii)Intein (c) Inhibits incorporation of mycolic acid in membrane (iv)Nitrosomanas (d) does not appear in functional RNA (v)Rifampicin (e) does not appear in functional protein (f) carry out nitrogen fixation (g) member of nitrifying bacteria Ans: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Q2. Write 'T' for true and 'F' for false statement/s given below. [1M ( 5] (i) Bactoprenol is a lipid carrier used in synthesis of peptidoglycan. (ii) Disinfectant is used to remove pathogenic bacteria from inanimate objects. (iii) trp operon contains leader sequence which can be translated. (iv) After death of nodulated plant, rhizobial bacteriod released in soil colonize other plant and continue cycle. (v) Secondary treatment of sewage water is truly biological...
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...here are basically three categories of chemicals normally functioning in the body—elements, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds: {draw:frame} Elements are components of all chemical compounds. Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, only 20 are normally found in the body. Seven of these, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, calcium, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur make up approximately 99% of the human body weight. In most cases, the elements are components of inorganic or organic compounds. In a few cases, however, elements themselves may enter into chemical reactions in the body, e.g., oxygen during cell respiration, sodium in neurotransmission, and arsenic and lead in impaired mitochondrial metabolism. Inorganic compounds are important in the body and responsible for many simple functions. The major inorganic compounds are water (H2O), bimolecular oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and some acids, bases, and salts. The body is composed of 60-75% water. Oxygen is required by all cells for cellular metabolism and circulating blood must be well oxygenated for maintenance of life. Carbon dioxide is a waste product of cells and must be eliminated or a serious change in pH can occur, known as acidosis. A balance in acids, bases, and salts must be maintained to assure homeostasis of blood pH and electrolyte balance. Organic compounds are involved in nearly all biochemical activities involved in normal cellular metabolism and function. The mechanisms by which xenobiotics...
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...The term “proteome” or “proteomics” was first introduced in 1995. Proteomics is the characterization and identification of all proteins that expressed by a genome or tissue and understanding how these proteins function (Mohanty, 2005). Besides, the purpose of proteomics is not only to recognize all the proteins in a cell but also to generate a complete three-dimensional (3D) map of the cell indicating where the proteins are located. To achieve these goals require the involvement of a large number of different fields such as biochemistry, molecular biology and bioinformatics. Many different areas of study are now grouped under the proteomic such as sequence and structural proteomics, expression proteomics, interaction proteomics and functional proteomics (figure 1) (Graves & Haystead, 2002). Figure1. Type of proteomics and their application. Firstly is sequence and structural proteomic. Sequence and structural proteomics is one of the proteomics branches that are specially designed in attempt to identify the whole sequences of all the proteins within a protein complex or even organelle (Reece et al., 2011). This identification leads to determination of the atomic resolution three dimensional (3D) protein structures on a genome in order to have better understanding about the relationship between protein sequence, structure and function. Besides, protein analysis also can identify the binding locations of drugs and the location of protein interactions with each other (Yee et al...
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...granular structure within the nucleus of a cell, and composed of protein and RNA. Nucleolus is involved with ribosomal RNA synthesis and formation of ribosomes in cells. Nucleoplasm The nucleoplasm is a highly viscous liquid that surrounds the chromosomes and nucleoli. Many substances such as nucleotides (necessary for purposes such as the replication of DNA) and enzymes (which direct activities that take place in the nucleus) are dissolved in the nucleoplasm. Mitochondrion: Spherical or rod-shaped organelles found within the cytoplasm of cells, and are referred to as the “powerhouse of the cell since they act as the site for the production of high-energy compounds (e.g. ATP), which are vital energy source for several cellular processes. Nucleus: The large, membrane-bounded organelle that contains the genetic material, in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. The major functions of nucleus are to maintain the integrity of DNA and to control cellular activities such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction by regulating gene expression. Cytoplasm: It is the jelly-like substance in a cell that contains the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions, but not including the nucleus. The cytoplasm is where the functions for cell expansion, growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out Ribosome: A minute particle composed of protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that serves as the site of protein synthesis. Golgi Complex: Golgi...
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