A. Major Works in the Field of Translation

June 03, 2015

Contents A. Major Works in the Field of Translation 2 I. Introduction 2 II. Translation Works in Europe and Asia 3 III. Conclusion 6 Works Cited 7

A. Major works in the field of translation I. Introduction

Translation studies covers the science of written translation as well as that of oral translation, commonly referred to as interpreting. In this paper, I shall focus on well-know historical written translations. Specifically, how they came into being, what instigated the process by which they made their, relatively speaking, universal debut and to conclude, a word or two about how these translations were received. In the rational, temperate climate that permeates the society of today it is often difficult to imagine the trials and tribulations that early translators had to face. Some translators were simply too educated and ultimately, their life work led them to their downfall at the hands of those who would not accept change. These forces conspired to undermine the efforts of those who were driven simply by curiosity. As Jeremy Munday points out:

Any translation diverging from the accepted interpretation was likely to be deemed heretical and to be censored or banned. An even worse fate lay in store for some translators. The most famous examples are those of the English theologian-translator William Tyndale, and the French humanist Etienne Dolet, both burnt at the stake.

(23)

No other work has revolutionized the English-speaking world as the Bible. The Bible is an endless source of controversy, it is the book that has had the most impact on the way we interpret languages, they way they interact with each other and the interpretation and misuse that has plagued its existence. Religions spread either as a result of a blatant lack of traditions in a culture or as a result of a certain culture simply pushing their belief system unto others. Whatever the reasons for its growth, the Christian religion and translation have a rich history. Bassnett adds that "With the Spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of disseminating the word of God" (53). It is clear that the relation between religious works and translation has been long, fruitful and sometimes deadly. Failure to properly translate these texts might induce a large number people into confusion, as they rely solely on the written holy text to guide their lives. The region and religion that I would like to contrast the European tradition and Christianity in general with, is the Asian continent and its experience with Buddhism. Buddhism spread out through Asia in the 5th century and gave rise to some distinguished translators, chief among them Dao'an, a religious leader:

Translation choices were expounded in the prefaces of these texts, perhaps the most influential being by the religious leader Dao'an, who directed an extensive translation 'programme' of the sutras in the fourth century CE. These prefaces considered 'the dilemma [sic] which ever faced Buddhist translators: whether to make a free, polished and shortened version adapted to the taste of the Chinese public, or a faithful, literal, repetitious and therefore unreadable translation.

(qtd. in Munday 21)

Issues arise when confronting these two major religions due to the different circumstances that forged them and ultimately, it is not the purpose of this work to dwell on the religions themselves but on the written word, interpreted as a standard, and on the impact it had on translation.

II. Translation Works in Europe and Asia

As stated earlier, the main impetus for translation work has been, is and will probably be for a long time, the translation of religious works. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, edited by Mona Baker, states that:

"The incentives which gave rise to periods of intensive translation activity in different parts of the world have varied a great deal over the centuries. One such incentive was the spread of Buddhism in China; the need to translate Buddhist sutras into Chinese, starting around the mid-second century, supported a massive translation movement, often sponsored by the government, lasting for some nine centuries.

(xvi)

The wide interest of the people for these works has indeed provided fertile ground for the development of translation and has made so that translators themselves have gained reputation. In Bassnett's book, Translation Studies, we find clues as to the emergence and development of translating the bible:

"The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffite Bible produced between 1380 and 1384, which marked the start of a great flowering of English Bible translations linked to changing attitudes of the role of the written text in the church, that formed part of the developing reformation."

(53)

Wycliffe believed that anyone who wished to have access to sacred texts should not be hampered in his search. Since literacy was from being a given in the 14th century, there had to be created texts that should satisfy the need for written words that closely resembled the spoken word, i.e. a language that would be familiar to those who took the time read through it. Unfortunately, the great theologian came under attack from the church. His translation, based on a Latin version of the original greek, focused on the Bible itself, making it available to any number of people. This would of course could only lead to a loss of power for the church, who saw themselves as the only legitimate purveyor of the word of God. Even with the all the dangers involved, Wycliffe's work survived:

"The extent of its importance may be measured by the fact that the bulk of the 150 copies of Purvey's [a disciple of Wycliffe] revised Bible were written even after the prohibition, on pain of excommunication, of translations circulated without the approval of diocesan or provincial council in July 1408."

(Bassnett 54)

Another Englishman who had a great impact on the translation of the Bible, was William Tyndale, whose New Testament, was printed in 1525. Regretabely, he suffered the fate of others before him who tried to bring Sacred Texts closer to the everyday man. Bassnett affirms that "by the time he was burned at the stake in 1536 he had translated the New Testament from the Greek and parts of the Old testament from the Hebrew" (55). His dedication to his work is a source of inspiration. Not only in Great Britain did the Bible evoke a translation fever. In Germany, the famous translator-priest Martin Luther based his translation of the Bible on the first Greek New Testament, published by the Dutch Humanist, Erasmus. Martin Luter's contribution to the field of translation, as well as to the German language itself cannot be underestimated. Munday maintains that "The most notable example is Martin Luther's crucially influential translation into East Central German of the New Testament" (23). Like his predecessors, he was scolded by church authorities, who felt he was stepping out of line. He defended himself and his blatant alterations to the bible, claiming that the he simply adapted the language to better suit the needs, wishes and aspirations of those that would read his work. Luther concluded that "the grammar shall not rule over the meaning." (qtd. in Bassnett 56). That is not to say that one should simply disregard the rules that govern the proper construction of a sentence or the like. It has more to do with trying to focus first and foremost on the impact the work will have. Martin Luther based his translation on two pillars. First he focused on the source material, i.e. the Bible itself. He then turned to the spoke German tongue of the time to create a text that would see mass appeal. H. Kittel and A. Polterman hold that "The enormous success of Luther's Bible translation may be attributed to his creative use of the German vernacular" (421). Another reason for his remarkable success was the mass circulation of his work by means of new technologies introduced in his time. As to the concerns of translators in Asia, Dao'an and the great Kuchan translator and commentator Kumarajiva, they did not suffer the terrible fate that befell some European translators. Even so, they still faced faced the ultimate dilema, should they stick to the original text and reproduce it without making even the slightest alteration, or should they adapt it in order to make more palatable to the masses. Dao'an made an effort to regulate the way translations made their way towards the public by listing a number of areas where he felt alterations could be made with a certain degree of safety: flexibility of Sanskrit syntax, enhancement of literariness of the source text, omission of repetition in argumentation, in introductions and of summaries. Kumarajiva took his theories further, he advanced what Chinese scholars have dubbed yiyi. According to Munday, this concept might best be translated as "free translation" (21). In the end, the liberties taken might have been a bit to extensive and might have eventually led to loss in meaning. Certain texts simply do not require extensive modification.

III. Conclusion

From what can be gathered from the individual points that have been covered, certain religious works can be seen as solid foundations on which translation can find a sturdy foundation. The need for these works to reach large sections of the population has proven to be an effective catalyst for translation. One has only to look at the sheer number of versions of the bible and the number of languages this book has been translated in. On the other side of the globe, Buddhism has in time seen changes that have not benefited it. But efforts have been made, the work is there. In the past Buddhist scriptures have helped revolutionize translation and it can certainly do so again. In fact, is cultural ties to the past are to preserved, then scholars will most certainly have to direct their attention to works which have remained outside of regular research.

Works Cited

Baker, Mona, ed. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London: Routledge, 2001. Print.
Bassnett, Susan. "History of Translation Theory." Translation Studies. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.
Gross, Alex. “The History of Translation History.” N.p., Sept. 1996. Web.
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2008. Print.
---. “Using Primary Sources to Produce a Microhistory of Translation and Translators: Theoretical and Methodological Concerns.” The Translator 20.1 (2014): 64–80. Print.
Olohan, Maeve. “History of Science and History of Translation: Disciplinary Commensurability?” The Translator 20.1 (2014): 9–25. Print.
Rundle, Cristopher. “Theories and Methodologies of Translation History: The Value of an Interdisciplinary Approach.” The Translator 20.1 (2015): 2–8. Print.
Steele, Jonathan. “Lost in Translation.” The Guardian 14 June 2006: n. pag. Print.